1. 1. [The endings of nouns. And first, those that end in vowels.] All nouns end in thirteen letters: five vowels, a, e, i, o, u; six semivowels, l, m, n, r, s, x; and two mutes, c, t, after a vowel. In the masculine, as "Seneca, Catilina, Silla, Iuba, Cinna, Pansa"; Greek ones, "Sosia, Paseta"; African ones, "Iugurtha, Micipsa." In the feminine, "femina, musa, tabula, regula, norma, forma," and the like. In the neuter there are only Greek ones, as "thema, schema," and the like, and one Latin one, the name of a river, "Turia," as Sallust says: Flumen Turia (the river Turia). In the common gender, "advena, convena, indigena, Troiugena," and the like. In the epicene, "vipera, aquila, musca, locusta, ulula" (which we call "noctua," the screech-owl), and the like. We have spoken of the letter "a"; now let us speak of "e." From the vowel "e" no Latin masculine is found, unless joined to a preposition, as "proconsule, propraetore." So, joined to a preposition, they become Latin, as I said, "proconsule, propraetore, proquaestore." For the ancients said "proconsul" in the nominative case, observing that no Latin noun ends in the letter "e" in the nominative case in the masculine gender. In the feminine there is no Latin one, but only Greek ones: as "Andromache, Niobe, Libye, Hecabe, Calliope, Euterpe," whose genitive ends in "es": "Andromaches, Niobes, Libyes, Hecabes, Calliopes, Euterpes." But let us treat these with the Greek words. In the neuter from the letter "e": "monile, sedile, cubile," and the rest, which we shall set down a little later in the rule of the neuter gender. In the common gender there is no noun, and likewise none in the epicene.
Now let us treat the letter "i," what genders it contains in the nominative. In the masculine there is no noun ending in "i"; in the feminine none; in the neuter "gummi," and it is indeclinable (aptoton); in the common gender none; of every gender, as "frugi, nihili." It is declined thus: "hic vir frugi, haec femina frugi, hoc mancipium frugi" (this honest man, this honest woman, this honest slave); it makes the genitive likewise "frugi," "huius viri frugi, huius feminae frugi, huius mancipii frugi"; so through all the cases we say "frugi." So "nihili" is declined: "hic nihili vir, haec nihili mulier, hoc nihili mancipium" (this worthless man, woman, slave). With this one sound all the cases are declined; so in the plural: "viri nihili, feminae nihili, mancipia nihili." In the epicene likewise none ends in "i." From the vowel "o" the nominative ends, in a masculine common noun, as "ligo, ligonis"; from a proper name, as "Cato, Cicero, Maro, Nero, Tubero," and the like. From a feminine common noun, as "vertigo, indago, farrago, siligo"; it is read in Juvenal thus:
but he who is dosed and pampered with so many medicines, and takes lumps of cooked and sodden wheat-bread (siligo)—shall it be called a face or a sore? "Sartago, virago, lanugo, aurugo, aerugo, crepido"; in Juvenal: no curb (crepido) is free, nor anywhere a bridge or a scrap of matting,
and the like. From a feminine proper noun, "Carthago"; foreign ones, however, as "Dido, Ino, Io, Alecto, Celaeno, Clio, Manto," whose genitive ends in "us," "Didus, Inus, Ius, Alectus, Celaenus, Clius, Mantus"; but let us treat this with the Greek words. In the neuter no nominative ends in "o." In the common gender, "fullo, latro, caupo," etc. In the epicene, "struthio, hirundo, hirudo, curculio, bufo," and the like. From the vowel "u" only the neuter, which in the singular is indeclinable, and in the plural is declined, as "cornu, veru, genu, tonitru"; with this sound all the cases are pronounced in the singular, as we said; in the plural they are declined, "cornua, verua, genua"; in the genitive, "horum cornuum, veruum, genuum"; and the rest you will decline on the model of "versuum" and "fluctuum."

1. 2. [On the nouns that end in semivowels and their genders.] We have spoken of the five vowels in which the nominative ends; now let us speak of the semivowels. The nominative ending in the letter "l": in masculine common nouns, "hic sal"; in proper nouns, "Sol." In feminines, only one name, that of a matron, "Tanaquil." In neuters, "mel, fel." In the common gender, "vigil, pugil"; whence Terence too says of a maiden: Pugilem esse aiunt (they say she is a boxer). In the epicene there is no noun. The nominative ending in "m": in masculines there is no Latin one. In feminines, "Glycerium, Phanium, Dorcium, Philocomasium." In neuters, however, "templum, telum, tectum," and others, whose plurals are easy. In the common gender none ends in "m"; so too in the epicene. Now let us treat the semivowel "n." The nominative ending in the letter "n," from masculines: "flamen, pecten, lien," which is "splen" (the spleen). From feminines, "siren," plural "sirenes." From neuters, "carmen, germen, gramen," and the rest of the kind, which we shall treat later in the rule of the neuter gender. From the common gender the nominative ending in "n": "tibicen, tubicen, fidicen, cornicen, liticen" [one who plays on the war-trumpets]. From the epicene, "oscen" [that is, a bird that gives the augury], "attagen." Now let us treat the semivowel "r." The nominative ending in the letter "r," from masculines, as "Caesar, iubar, Arar, Nar, victor, tutor, sopor, maeror," and others that are easy, in common nouns as much as in proper ones; from feminines, "arbor, soror"; from neuters, "marmor, aequor," and others; from the common gender, "pauper, acer, alacer, memor, auctor"; from the epicene, "passer, accipiter, anser." Now let us treat the semivowel letter "s." The nominative ending in the letter "s," from masculines: "iustus, doctus, pius"; from feminines, "dos, sors, mors," and the like; from neuters, "vulnus, pectus, pecus," and the rest, which we shall presently treat by rule; from the common gender, "sacerdos, impos, compos, similis, nobilis, agilis"; of every gender, as "nugas," etc. Of these we shall presently treat more fully. From the epicene, "tigris, mus, lepus," etc. Now let us treat the semivowel letter "x." The nominative in the letter "x"; from masculines, "vertex, cortex, pumex"; from proper nouns, "Pollux"; from feminines, "nex, prex, fex, pax, fax," and others; from neuters there is no noun unless it is joined to every gender, as "felix."

1. 3. [On those that end in mutes.] There remain the two mute letters, c, t. The nominative ending in the letter "c" holds the masculine, as "alec"; it holds the neuter, as "lac." The nominative ending in the letter "t" holds the neuter gender, as "caput, sinciput, semicaput."

1. 4. [On the ending and declension of nouns of the neuter gender.] Nouns of the neuter gender ending in the syllable "um," like "templum," are also declined thus: hoc templum, huius templi, huic templo, hoc templum, o templum, ab hoc templo, haec templa, horum templorum, his templis, haec templa, o templa, ab his templis. With a similar declension all these also run their course: "telum, tectum, scamnum, bellum, monstrum, portentum, oppidum, carpentum, venenum, damnum, bonum, malum, magnum, pessimum, parvum, frumentum, medicamentum, membrum, forum, metrum, porrum, tignum, plaustrum, claustrum, instrumentum, olivetum, vinetum, palmetum, quercetum, esculetum, lauretum, argumentum, sacrum, testamentum, iugerum, vinum"—but the last only in the singular number (for the poets said "vina," and Cicero more rarely). So "oleum, hordeum, triticum, ferrum, viscum, aurum, argentum, plumbum, stagnum, vitrum, electrum," and the like, which are matters of weight or measure. Of this same form of the neuter gender are those that end in "ium," but these are written in the genitive with two "i's," as "hoc ingenium, huius ingenii"; so "imperium imperii, scrinium scrinii, capitolium capitolii, tentorium tentorii, armarium armarii" [solarium solarii, armentarium armentarii, where the herds (armenta) are kept], "spatium spatii, sacrarium sacrarii" [a place in which sacred things are kept]; so "horarium horarii, solarium solarii, tectorium tectorii" [tentorium tentorii, that is, a soldiers' tent], "viridarium viridarii, pomerium pomerii" [a place behind the walls], "sacrificium sacrificii, folium folii, solium solii, testimonium testimonii"; so "rosarium rosarii, aviarium aviarii" [a place or seat of birds], "augurium augurii, auspicium auspicii, exitium exitii, exsilium exsilii, prodigium prodigii, auxilium auxilii, praesidium praesidii, atrium atrii, aucupium aucupii, adiutorium adiutorii, mancipium mancipii, dolium dolii." There is also another form of the neuter gender that ends in "us," as "hoc pecus, huius pecoris, huic pecori, hoc pecus, o pecus, ab hoc pecore, haec pecora, horum pecorum, his pecoribus, haec pecora, o pecora, ab his pecoribus." On this model we shall decline "ulcus ulcera, facinus facinora, vellus vellera, viscus viscera, rus rura, ius iura, nemus nemora, tergus tergora, pectus pectora, genus genera, pondus pondera, corpus corpora, decus decora, funus funera, fenus fenera, olus olera, litus litora, opus opera, rudus rudera, tus tura, tempus tempora, foedus foedera, stercus stercora, onus onera, latus latera." There is another kind of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in "ur," as "hoc murmur, huius murmoris, huic murmori, hoc murmur, o murmur, ab hoc murmore, haec murmora, horum murmorum, his murmoribus, haec murmora, o murmora, ab his murmoribus." On this model you will decline similar ones, as "ebur ebora, femur femora, sulfur sulfora, fulgur fulgora." But of this model not many are found, just as there are few of the neuter gender that end in "or," as "marmor, huius marmoris, huic marmori, hoc marmor, o marmor, ab hoc marmore." So "aequor aequora, cor corda." Another kind of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in the syllable "ar," as "far, huius farris, huic farri, hoc far, o far, ab hoc farre." In the plural it has only three cases: the nominative "haec farra," the accusative likewise "haec farra," the vocative "o farra"; it does not, then, have the genitive, dative, and ablative. Whence they are called "triptote" in the plural, that is, of three cases, as are "iura"; we do not say "horum iurum, his iuribus," nor "aerum aeribus," nor "mellorum mellibus," and a few others; for they are not many. This form, then, you will decline only in the singular number. And "hoc nectar nectaris, lasar lasaris," and "instar," which means "likeness" [but they have three cases, the nominative, accusative, and vocative], and they are of the singular number only. Another kind of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in "er," but of the singular number only: "hoc piper, huius piperis, huic piperi, hoc piper, o piper, ab hoc pipere." On this model you will decline, in the singular only, "ver": "hoc ver, huius veris, huic veri, hoc ver, o ver, ab hoc vere." So you will decline "siler" too, a kind of shrub, of which Virgil says, Ut molle siler (like the soft osier). Likewise you will decline "iuger," but it has a plural, as "iuger iugera," according to the ancients, who said "horum iugerum"; "uber ubera, tuber tubera"; and these, as I said, are of few nouns. Another kind ends in "os," as "os" itself, "ora," whence "osculum," but this we lengthen; the other we shorten, from which comes "ossa"; it is declined "hoc os, huius ossis, huic ossi, hoc os, o os, ab hoc osse, haec ossa, horum ossuum, his ossibus, haec ossa, o ossa, ab his ossibus." Another kind of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in "e," as "monile," which is an ornament of gems: "hoc monile, huius monilis, huic monili, hoc monile, o monile, ab hoc monili, haec monilia, horum monilium, his monilibus, haec monilia, o monilia, ab his monilibus." Likewise you will decline "sedile sedilia, praesepe praesepia, torale toralia, ducale ducalia, molle mollia, grave gravia, vile vilia, mite mitia, suave suavia, vitale vitalia, morale moralia, lene lenia, leve levia, ancile ancilia," which is a kind of shield, of which Virgil says: Laevaque ancile gerebat (and on his left he bore the sacred shield), "facile facilia, nobile nobilia, agile agilia, mare maria"; but in the plural it has only three cases, the nominative, accusative, and vocative; it does not have the genitive, dative, and ablative; for we do not say in the genitive "horum marium," or in the dative "his maribus," or in the ablative "ab his maribus." So too you will decline others similar to this form. The ablative of this rule ends in the letter "i," not in "e," because the neuter gender never has four like cases, such as to make in the nominative "hoc monile," and in the accusative "hoc monile," and in the vocative "o monile," and in the ablative "ab hoc monile"; but "ab hoc monili." Whence Virgil: Instrato saxa cubili (the rocks with a spread couch—"ab hoc cubili"); so also: Sacra mari colitur (a holy thing on the sea); likewise: Hortatur pater ire mari (the father urges to go by sea); likewise: Tenui de vimine (of a slender withe); likewise: Crudeli vulnere (with a cruel wound); likewise: Lethali vulnere (with a deadly wound); likewise: Dulci ex ore recuset (let him refuse from his sweet mouth); and when we say "nobili genere natus" (born of a noble stock), not "nobile." So, then, you will observe in a neuter noun that ends in the nominative singular in "e," that, by a perpetual rule, it sends the ablative into "i." Another kind of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in "al," as "animal": "hoc animal, huius animalis, huic animali, hoc animal, o animal, ab hoc animali, haec animalia, horum animalium, his animalibus, haec animalia, o animalia, ab his animalibus." On this model you will decline "tribunal tribunalia, lupercal lupercalia," which are the rites of that god who is called Pan; whence Virgil too, of the place itself: Et gelida monstrat sub rupe Lupercal (and he shows the Lupercal beneath the cold cliff). Another kind of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in "el," as "mel": "hoc mel, huius mellis, huic melli, hoc mel, o mel, ab hoc melle." So you will decline "fel": "hoc fel, huius fellis, huic felli, hoc fel, o fel, ab hoc felle." But in the plural number it runs through three cases, the nominative, accusative, and vocative. Another kind of the neuter gender, which contains nouns ending in the syllable "en": "hoc crimen, huius criminis, huic crimini, hoc crimen, o crimen, ab hoc crimine, haec crimina, horum criminum, his criminibus, haec crimina, o crimina, ab his criminibus." On this rule you will decline similar ones, "carmen carminis, numen numinis, flamen flaminis, agmen agminis, acumen acuminis, gramen graminis, flumen fluminis, stamen staminis, lumen luminis, semen seminis, liquamen liquaminis, fulmen fulminis, rumen ruminis, bitumen bituminis, gluten glutinis, legumen leguminis, fundamen fundaminis, tegimen tegiminis, munimen muniminis, levamen levaminis, specimen speciminis"; but it does not admit a plural; likewise "subtegumen subteguminis." Another kind of the neuter gender, indeclinable (aptota), that is, undeclined, as "genu": "hoc genu, huius genu, huic genu, hoc genu, o genu, ab hoc genu, haec genua, horum genuum, his genibus, haec genua, o genua, ab his genibus." On this model you will decline "cornu" too, as we said above, "cornu cornua, veru verua," which are the iron rods of butchers, of which Virgil says veribusque trementia figunt (and they fix the quivering flesh on spits), "tonitru tonitrua." But the declension of such nouns is very rarely found. Another kind of the neuter gender, of which we treated above, which ends in four nouns of two mutes, c and t, as "caput, sinciput," and "lac" and "allec"; but these two do not admit the plural number. Likewise the neuter gender ends in "a," but in Greek nouns, as "thema themata, toreuma toreumata, schema schemata, emblema emblemata, theorema theoremata, boethema boethemata," and others. Likewise let us remember that single letters, both in Greek and in Latin, are of the neuter gender. For we say "one alfa, one beta, one gamma"; so too the other letters; in the plural, "two alfa, two beta, two gamma"; so "three alfa, three beta, three gamma." Hence that saying, tria kappa kakista, that is, "three K's are worst," about Cornelius Sulla, Cornelius Cinna, Cornelius Lentulus. For these were designated by three letters in the Sibylline books. There is also one noun of the neuter gender in "a," as the river "Turia," as we said above.

1. 5. [On the ending and declension of nouns of the common gender.] The common gender ends in "a," as "advena": it is declined "hic et haec advena, huius advenae, huic advenae, hunc et hanc advenam, o advena, ab hoc et ab hac advena, hi et hae advenae, horum et harum advenarum, his advenis, hos et has advenas, o advenae, ab his advenis." On this model you will decline "Troiugena, indigena, incola, agricola, convena, caelicola, sacricola, publicola, terricola, urbicola, plebicola, Numida, Dalmata, ruricola, lucifuga, Persa, Romulida," and the rest. In the nominative the common gender does not have "e" and "i," that is, it does not end in "e" or in "i," but in "o," as "latro": "hic et haec latro, huius latronis, huic latroni, hunc et hanc latronem, o latro, ab hoc et ab hac latrone, hi et hae latrones, horum et harum latronum, his latronibus, hos et has latrones, o latrones, ab his latronibus." On this model you will decline "homo, ganeo, degulo, caupo, fullo, nemo, helluo," who is also "glutto," and the like. Through "u," however, it has none in the nominative. So the common gender ends in the syllable "es," as "comes": "hic et haec comes, huius comitis, huic comiti, hunc et hanc comitem, o comes, ab hoc et ab hac comite, hi et hae comites, horum et harum comitum, his comitibus, hos et has comites, o comites, ab his comitibus." On this model are declined "sospes, locuples, hospes" (although Virgil said "hospitam," hospita tellus, the hospitable land), "miles, veles" [that is, a light-armed soldier], "interpres, ales, praepes, praes" [that is, a surety], "satelles, deses, praeses, dives, Caeres, caeles" [the dwellers in heaven, who make a way for themselves to heaven], "indiges, indigetis," and the rest. It ends in "is," as "similis": "hic et haec similis, huius similis, huic simili, hunc et hanc similem, o similis, ab hoc et ab hac similes, et hae similes, horum et harum similium, his similibus, hos et has similes, o similes, ab his similibus." On this model are declined "agilis, facilis, fragilis, viridis, nobilis, mobilis, dulcis, humilis, mitis, lenis, levis, mollis, civis, testis, hostis, tristis, fortis, suavis, frugalis, crudelis, inanis, gracilis, immanis," and the rest. It ends in "os," as "sacerdos": "hic et haec sacerdos, huius sacerdotis, huic sacerdoti, hunc et hanc sacerdotem, o sacerdos, ab hoc et ab hac sacerdote, hi et hae sacerdotes, horum et harum sacerdotum, his sacerdotibus, hos et has sacerdotes, o sacerdotes, ab his sacerdotibus." On this model are declined "custos, inpos, conpos, nepos." It ends in "us," as "sus": "hic et haec sus, huius suis, huic sui, hunc et hanc suem, o sus, ab hoc et ab hac sue, hi et hae sues, horum et harum suum, his subus, hos et has sues, o sues, ab his subus." It ends in "er," as "pauper": "hic et haec pauper, huius pauperis, huic pauperi, hunc et hanc pauperem, o pauper, ab hoc et ab hac paupere, hi et hae pauperes, horum et harum pauperum, his pauperibus, hos et has pauperes, o pauperes, ab his pauperibus." On this model are declined "acer, alacer" [that is, glad]. The common gender ends in "ex," as "opifex": "hic et haec opifex, huius opificis, huic opifici, hunc et hanc opificem, o opifex, ab hoc et ab hac opifice, hi et hae opifices, horum et harum opificum, his opificibus, hos et has opifices, o opifices, ab his opificibus." On this model you will decline "aurifex, artifex, iudex, carnifex, index, vindex, auspex, haruspex, signifex," and others. The common gender ends in "eps," as "princeps": it is declined thus, "hic et haec princeps, huius principis, huic principi, hunc et hanc principem, o princeps, ab hoc et ab hac principe, hi et hae principes, horum et harum principum, his principibus, hos et has principes, o principes, his principibus." So are declined "manceps, particeps, municeps." But "anceps" and "biceps" and "triceps" and "quadriceps, multiceps, praeceps"—these six nouns send the genitive singular, contrary to the rule above, into the syllable "tis," not into "pis," as "anceps ancipitis, biceps bicipitis, triceps tricipitis, quadriceps quadricipitis, multiceps multicipitis, praeceps praecipitis." But they end in the syllable "tis," not in "pis" like "principis, mancipis," because they come from the signification of "caput" (head), whereas those earlier ones come from the signification of "capere" (to take). For "princeps" is so called because he takes first (primus capiat), and "manceps" because he takes with the hand (manu capiat). And "anceps" is so called because he is of a doubtful head (dubii capitis), or of a head inclined to either side. The common gender ends also in the syllable "iux," as "coniux": "hic et haec coniux." It ends also in "ux," as "hic et haec dux, redux." It ends in "ops," which indeed will pass over into every gender. It ends in "ebs," as "caelebs" [one is called "caelebs" who has no wife, or she who has no husband: such are the divinities in heaven that are without a spouse, if we do not attend to the poets]: "hic et haec caelebs, huius caelibis, huic caelibi, hunc et hanc caelibem, o caelebs, ab hoc et ab hac caelibe, hi et hae caelibes, horum et harum caelibum, his caelibibus, hos et has caelibes, o caelibes, ab his caelibibus." It ends also in "yx," as "Phryx": "hic et haec Phryx, huius Phrygis, huic Phrygi, hunc et hanc Phrygem, o Phryx, ab hoc et ab hac Phryge, hi et hae Phryges, horum et harum Phrygum, his Phrygibus, hos et has Phryges, o Phryges, ab his Phrygibus." It ends also in "us," as "Ligus" [like "Phryx," it is a place-name]: "hic et haec Ligus, huius Liguris, huic Liguri, hunc et hanc Ligurem, o Ligus, ab hoc et ab hac Ligure, hi et hae Ligures, horum et harum Ligurum, his Liguribus, hos et has Ligures, o Ligures, ab his Liguribus." The common gender ends also in "il," as "vigil": "hic et haec vigil, huius vigilis, huic vigili, hunc et hanc vigilem, o vigil, ab hoc et ab hac vigile, hi et hae vigiles, horum et harum vigilum, his vigilibus, hos et has vigiles, o vigiles, ab his vigilibus." On this rule you will decline "hic et haec pugil." It ends also in "ul," as "exsul": "hic et haec exsul, huius exsulis, huic exsuli, hunc et hanc exsulem, o exsul, ab hoc et ab hac exsule, hi et hae exsules, horum et harum exsulum, his exsulibus, hos et has exsules, o exsules, ab his exsulibus." On this model you will decline "praesul": "hic et haec praesul" [which now is masculine, like "consul"]. It ends also in "ur," as "fur": "huius furis, huic furi, hunc et hanc furem, o fur, ab hoc et ab hac fure, hi et hae fures, horum et harum furum, his furibus, hos et has fures, o fures, ab his furibus." On this model you will decline "augur": "hic et haec augur." The common gender ends in "or," as "maior, memor." But "memor," if such is the rule, does not admit a neuter in "us," in the way that "maior" admits in the neuter "maius": "hic et haec memor, huius memoris, huic memori, hunc et hanc memorem, o memor, ab hoc et ab hac memori, hi et hae memores, horum et harum memorum, his memoribus, hos et has memores, o memores, ab his memoribus." It does admit a neuter, but not into the rule of every gender, as "hoc memor," whence Virgil too:
Then, if any divinity has care for lovers bound by an unequal compact, and prays as just and mindful (memor),
it does not admit a plural; hence it is not of every gender. For we do not say "memora" or "memoria numina." Likewise you will decline "auctor," "hic et haec auctor," as Juno says: Auctor ego audendi (I am the prompter of the daring), "hi et hae auctores."

1. 6. [On the ending and declension of nouns of every gender.] Likewise concerning every gender. Every gender ends in "ax," in "ex," in "ix," in "ox," in "ux," in "ans," in "ens," in "ons," in "ar," in "ers," in "ors," in "us," in "es," in "am." In "ax," as "hic et haec et hoc pertinax, huius pertinacis, huic pertinaci, hunc et hanc pertinacem, et hoc pertinax, o pertinax, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc pertinaci, hi et hae pertinaces, et haec pertinacia, horum et harum et horum pertinacium, his pertinacibus, hos et has pertinaces, et haec pertinacia, o pertinaces, et o pertinacia, ab his pertinacibus." On this model will be declined "efficax, tenax, pervicax, dicax, sequax, rapax, mordax, capax, furax, emax, fallax, mendax, nugax, vivax." All these send the ablative singular into the letter "i." Likewise every gender ends in "ex," according to the order of the rules arranged above, as "simplex": "hic et haec et hoc simplex, huius simplicis, huic simplici, hunc et hanc simplicem, et hoc simplex, o simplex, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc simplici, hi et hae simplices, et haec simplicia, horum et harum et horum simplicium, his simplicibus, hos et has simplices, et haec simplicia, o simplices, et o simplicia, ab his simplicibus." On this model are declined "duplex, triplex, quadruplex, quinquiplex, sexuplex, septuplex"—it is excluded, because "septimplex" is the Latin form, which is declined as above. From the rule of "ix," "felix," which is declined "hic et haec et hoc felix, huius felicis, huic felici, hunc et hanc felicem, et hoc felix, o felix, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc felici" (from the sound of the neuter gender; from proper names it ends in "e," "ab hoc Felice," and it is of the masculine gender), "hi et hae felices, et haec felicia, horum et harum et horum felicium, his felicibus, hos et has felices, et haec felicia, o felices et o felicia, ab his felicibus." On this rule is declined "pernix," which means "swift." From the rule of "ox," as "ferox," it is declined thus, "hic et haec et hoc ferox, huius ferocis, huic feroci, hunc et hanc ferocem, et hoc ferox, o ferox, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc feroce" (from the sound of the masculine and feminine gender), "hi et hae feroces, et haec ferocia, horum et harum et horum ferocium, his ferocibus, hos et has feroces, et haec ferocia, o feroces, et o ferocia, ab his ferocibus." On this model will be declined "atrox, velox." From the rule of "ux," there is one noun, "trux": "hic et haec et hoc trux, huius trucis, huic truci, hunc et hanc trucem, et hoc trux, o trux, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc truci" (from the sound of the neuter gender), "hi et hae truces, et haec trucia, horum et harum et horum trucium" (from the sound of the neuter gender), "his trucibus, hos et has truces, et haec trucia, o truces et o trucia, ab his trucibus." From the rule of "ans," as "praestans": "hic et haec et hoc praestans, huius praestantis, huic praestanti, hunc et hanc praestantem, et hoc praestans, o praestans, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc praestanti" (from the sound of the neuter gender), "hi et hae praestantes, et haec praestantia, horum et harum et horum praestantium" (from the sound of the neuter gender), "his praestantibus, hos et has praestantes, et haec praestantia, o praestantes, et o praestantia, ab his praestantibus." On this model are declined "amans, clamans, cantans, luctans, constans, prostans, regnans, pugnans, mirans, minans, miserans, aestuans, versans," and others. From the rule of "ens," as "amens": "hic et haec et hoc amens, huius amentis, huic amenti, hunc et hanc amentem, et hoc amens, o amens, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc amenti" (from the sound of the neuter gender likewise), "hi et hae amentes, et haec amentia, horum et harum et horum amentium" (from the sound of the neuter gender), "his amentibus, hos et has amentes, et haec amentia, o amentes et o amentia, ab his amentibus." On this model are declined "demens, potens, impotens, praepotens, prudens, imprudens, pudens, impudens, frequens, infrequens, sedens, haerens, moriens, merens, tenens, egens, ferens, cedens, saeviens, serviens, sapiens, insipiens, decipiens," and the like. From the rule of "ons," as "sons": "hic et haec sons, huius sontis, huic sonti, hunc et hanc sontem, et hoc sons, o sons, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc sonti" (from the sound of the neuter gender), "hi et hae sontes, et haec sontia, horum et harum et horum sontium" (from the sound of the neuter gender), "his sontibus, hos et has sontes, et haec sontia, o sontes et o sontia, ab his sontibus." On this rule is declined "insons" [that is, innocent]. These two only are of every gender. From the rule of "ar," as "par": "hic et haec et hoc par, huius paris, huic pari, hunc et hanc parem, et hoc par, o par, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc pari" (from the sound of the neuter gender), "hi et hae pares, et haec paria, horum et harum et horum parium, his paribus, hos et has pares, et haec paria, o pares et o paria, ab his paribus." On this model are declined "impar" and "suppar," which alone, three in all, are of every gender. From the rule of "ers," as "iners": "hic et haec et hoc iners, huius inertis, huic inerti, hunc et hanc inertem, et hoc iners, o iners, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc inerti, hi et hae inertes, et haec inertia, horum et harum et horum inertium, his inertibus, hos et has inertes, et haec inertia, o inertes et o inertia, ab his inertibus." From the rule of "ors," as "vecors": "hic et haec et hoc vecors, huius vecordis, huic vecordi, hunc et hanc vecordem, et hoc vecors, o vecors, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc vecordi" (from the neuter gender), "hi et hae vecordes, et haec vecordia, horum et harum et horum vecordium, his vecordibus, hos et has vecordes, et haec vecordia, o vecordes et o vecordia, ab his vecordibus." On this rule are declined "excors, concors, discors, consors, dissors." But these two, that is, "consors" and "dissors," have the syllable "tis" in the genitive singular, as "consortis, dissortis." And "dissors" means "of an unlike lot" (dissimilis sortis). From the rule of "us," as "vetus," it is declined thus: "hic et haec et hoc vetus, huius veteris, huic veteri, hunc et hanc veterem, et hoc vetus, o vetus, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc veteri" (from the sound of the neuter gender), "hi et hae veteres, et haec vetera, horum et harum et horum veterum, his veteribus, hos et has veteres, et haec vetera, o veteres et o vetera, ab his veteribus." This noun alone is of every gender. From the rule of "es," as "teres" [which is "rounded"]: it is declined "hic et haec et hoc teres" ["teres" is so called from rubbing, terendo]. From the rule of "am," "nequam": it is indeclinable (aptoton): for it is declined with one sound through all the cases and through all the genders.

1. 7. [On nouns of the epicene gender, and the difference of this gender from the common.] On the epicene gender. The epicene gender is that in which, under one article, either sex is understood—as for instance "hic passer" (this sparrow): now under this article, which sounds "hic," there is also the female. It is declined: "hic passer, huius passeris, huic passeri, hunc passerem, o passer, ab hoc passere, hi passeres, horum passerum, his passeribus, hos passeres, o passeres, ab his passeribus." So too "haec aquila" (this eagle): under one article, which sounds "haec," there we also understand the male. So too "haec tigris," under which sound the male too is understood. So too "haec hirundo" (this swallow): there you understand the male too. So "hic struthio" (this ostrich): there you understand the female too. So "sorix, stelio, musca." This, then, is the difference between the common gender and the epicene [further, another difference, that in the common gender there are both human beings and beasts, in the epicene beasts only]: that in the common gender both articles are present, that is, "hic" and "haec," as "hic et haec canis"; but the epicene shares the male and the female under one article, as when I say "hic passer," under that very article which sounds "hic" the female too is understood. So in a noun of the neuter gender, which is "hoc pecus": under the article which sounds "hoc," the female too is understood, as Virgil says: Lenta salix feto pecori (the pliant willow for the pregnant flock). And in "pecus," although it is of the neuter gender, the feminine gender too is heard there, when he says "feto pecori," that is, "pregnant."

1. 8. [On nouns of the singular or the plural number only.] Now we must speak of the nouns that are either of the singular number only or of the plural number only. In the masculine, plural only, as "cancelli, manes, penates." In the feminine, plural only, as "thermae, exsequiae, insidiae, divitiae, nundinae, kalendae"; likewise in the names of cities, "Amyclae, Thenae, Athenae, Syracusae, Thebae, Tubunae, Saldae, Abiturae, Macomades, Cales, Carrae, Asirae, Lares, Furnitum," which places are called tuni, and others like them. In the neuter, singular only, as "aurum, argentum, plumbum, stagnum, piper, triticum, oleum, vinum"—although Virgil gave "vina," and Cicero more rarely, and "hordeum," in the plural by poetic license, as Serite hordea campis (sow the barley in the fields). In the neuter, plural only, "castra, moenia, arma, exta" [that is, the innards], "Bactra" [which is a city of Parthia]: therefore this city too is of the neuter gender, of the plural number only.
To be sure, there are nouns under a double utterance, as "tribunus militum, praefectus urbis, praefectus fundis, praefectus annonae, praefectus vigilibus, plebis scitum, senatus consultum": of which nouns the one part is declined, the other is not declined; as for instance "praefectus vigilibus" (prefect of the watch): the nominative itself is bent through the cases, "praefectus, praefecti, praefecto, praefectum, praefecte, a praefecto"; "vigilibus" stays so, and is not bent. As "senatus consultum": "hoc consultum, huius consulti, huic consulto, hoc consultum, o consultum, ab hoc consulto." But "senatus" is a genitive; this is not bent.
Concerning the noun we have set things out rather fully, as far as suited an unlettered learner; now we must speak of the pronoun, which is the second of the eight parts of speech.

2. 1. [On the pronoun.] It is called "pronoun" because it functions in place of a noun (vice nominis): as "ille, iste, ipse." For just as by saying a noun we set forth a person, as Virgil does, so pronouns are of nearly the same power, when, with the noun unspoken, we say "hic fecit, iste fecit" (this one did it, that one did it). Pronouns are either definite, or indefinite, or less than definite. Definite are those that mark a certain person, as "ego" (I). Indefinite, as "quis, quisque, quicumque, quaecumque, qui, aliqui, quae, aliquae." Less than definite are the pronouns that do not so define a person as not to need a pointer, in the way we say "ego"; for "tu" (you) itself is not fully definite unless you direct your finger at the person. So, then, these are to be called "less than definite." For they have a certain designation, but not of full signification, in the way "ego" has it. For instance, suppose there is a crowd: still "tu" is not so significantly said in a crowd as when, of the crowd, one says "ego"; but, so that we may signify one out of many whom we seek, we either add a name or point a finger, so that it may appear more certainly whom we are calling. Therefore "tu, ille," and "iste," and the others that can define a person in some part, are to be called "less than definite."

2. 2. [On the declension of the pronoun of the first, second, and third person.] The first person, in the singular number as much as in the plural when we say "nos" (we), does not have a vocative case, because no one calls himself "o ego, o nos." So "ego" is declined: "ego, mei, mihi, me, a me, nos, nostrum, nobis, nos, a nobis." For it does not have a vocative, as I said, in the singular any more than in the plural. There follows the declension of the second person: "tu, tui, tibi, te, o tu, a te, vos, vestrum, vobis, vos, o vos, a vobis." Now the first and second person, that is, "ego" and "tu," are of every gender: for both a man says "ego" and a woman "ego" and a slave "ego." So with "tu": we say "tu" both to a man and to a woman and to a slave; so in the plural it is of every gender, as "nos, vos." For the third person this is the declension in the masculine gender: "ille, illius, illi, illum, o ille, ab illo, illi, illorum, illis, illos, o illi, ab illis." In the feminine gender: "illa, illius, illi, illam, o illa, ab illa, illae, illarum, illis, illas, o illae, ab illis." In the neuter gender: "illud, illius, illi, illud, o illud, ab illo, illa, illorum, illis, illa, o illa, ab illis." "Iste," and likewise "ipse," you will decline on the above model, both as to the genders and as to the numbers. There is, to be sure, a question in this pronoun "ipse," why—when we say "istud" and "illud" in the neuter gender—we say "ipsum," as Virgil says: Atque ipsum corpus amici (and the very body of his friend): he did not say "ipsud." But this question is resolved in this way: for the ancients said "ipsus" in the nominative singular of the masculine gender more than "ipse." Attending to this reasoning from antiquity, the writers of the art transferred this pronoun to the form of a noun: so that, just as in the noun we say "iustus, iusta, iustum," and "perfectus, perfecta, perfectum," so this pronoun too will be uttered "ipsus, ipsa, ipsum"—not "ipsud," as "istud" and "illud."

2. 3. [On the declension of the indefinite pronouns.] We must speak of the indefinite ones: in the masculine gender, "qui, cuius, cui, quem, o qui, a quo, qui, quorum, quis vel quibus" (as Virgil has "quis ante ora patrum"), "quos, o qui, a quibus." In the feminine gender, "quae, cuius, cui, quam, o quae, a qua, quae, quarum, quis, quas, o quae, a quibus." In the neuter gender, "quod, cuius, cui, quod, o quod, a quo, quae, quorum, quis" (but now according to usage we say "quibus"), "quae, o quae, a quibus." The ancients said "quis" in the common gender: "hic et haec quis, huius quis, huic qui, hunc et hanc quem, o quis, ab hoc et ab hac qui." From there comes the ablative ending in "bus"; but from "quis" the plural ablative comes from the ablative "qui," which ends in "o," just as, in the rule of nouns, when the ablative ends in "o," it sends the dative plural into "is," as "a iusto iustis, a docto doctis, a perfecto perfectis, a fortunato fortunatis." Therefore, as I said above, the ancients said "hic et haec quis," and just as in nouns "hic et haec similis, hic et haec agilis, hic et haec facilis," so in pronouns "hic et haec quis, ab hoc et ab hac qui." Whence Virgil, when he spoke of the companion of Camilla, says: Quicum partiri curas, that is, "with whom to share her cares." Likewise there are other indefinite ones: "uter," and they are declined "uter, utrius, utri, utrum, o uter, ab utro, utri, utrorum, utris, utros, o utri, ab utris." Thence, with the syllable "que" added in composition, it makes "uterque," and signifies both; and yet it is of singular sound, but of dual signification. For when Virgil said, Constitit in digitos extemplo arrectus uterque (each at once stood up raised on tiptoe), two were signified when he said "uterque"; but when he said "arrectus," he did not wish to regard the plurality, so as to be in the plural "utrique." But there is this difference, that "uterque," although it signifies two, signifies only two; whereas "utrique" signifies two, but in such a way that within each one there are many: if I say "utrique exercitus" (the two armies), I signify two, but in such a way that within each individual one I wish a crowd to be understood. These things are indeed distinct, but again they have been confused by authority. For when Virgil says Super utraque quassat tempora—he confounded it: for he ought to have said "super utrumque tempus"; for he was speaking of two temples only, for which "utrumque tempus" was sufficient, so that he would say "super utrumque quassat tempus." So, then, as we declined the masculine pronoun, we shall decline the feminine: "utra mulier, utrius mulieris, utri mulieri, utram mulierem, o utra mulier, ab utra muliere, utrae mulieres, utrarum mulierum, utris mulieribus, utras mulieres, o utrae mulieres, ab utris mulieribus." So in the neuter, "utrum mancipium, utrius mancipii, utri mancipio, utrum mancipium, o utrum mancipium, ab utro mancipio, utra mancipia, utrorum mancipiorum, utris mancipiis, utra mancipia, o utra mancipia, ab utris mancipiis." So we decline its contrary, which is "neuter": masculine "neuter," feminine "neutra," in the neuter gender "hoc neutrum mancipium." Whence usage has now seized upon our saying "generis neutri" when we ought to say "generis neutrius," like "utrius." With the syllable "que" added, the pronoun itself is declined on the rule mentioned above: in masculines "uterque," in feminines "utraque," in neuters "utrumque"; so in the plural, in masculines "utrique," in feminines "utraeque," in neuters "utraque mancipia." There is also another pronoun, "ullus, ullius, ulli, ullum, o ullus, ab ullo, ulli, ullorum, ullis, ullos, o ulli, ab ullis"; feminine "ulla, ullius, ulli, ullam, o ulla, ab ulla, ullae, ullarum, ullis, ullas, o ullae, ab ullis"; neuter "ullum, ullius, ulli, ullum, o ullum, ab ullo, ulla, ullorum, ullis, ulla, o ulla, ab ullis." On this model you will decline "nullus, nulla, nullum"; so "alius, huius alius, huic alii"; so "alter, huius alterius, huic alteri"; so "totus, huius totius, huic toti"; so "solus, huius solius, huic soli"; so "unus, huius unius, huic uni"; whence Virgil, huic uni forsan potui succumbere culpae (to this one fault perhaps I could have yielded).

2. 4. [Pronouns of quality.] There are also pronouns of quality, "hic et haec qualis, huius qualis," in the common gender; and from the neuter gender, "hoc quale, huius qualis, haec qualia, horum qualium." There are also pronouns of quantity, as "quantus, tantus; quanti, tanti": they are declined like "iustus iusti." In the feminine, "quanta, tanta," declined like "iusta." In the neuter, "quantum, tantum," declined like "iustum." Likewise the pronoun, in the masculine, "quotus, totus"; in the feminine "quota, tota"; in the neuter "quotum, totum." In the plural, in the masculine "quoti, toti"; in the feminine "quotae, totae"; in the neuter "quota iugera, quotorum iugerorum." There are relatives that are referred back to one asking, as "quis est?" (who is it?), answered "is est" (it is he): and they are declined, in the masculine, "is, eius, ei, eum, o is, ab eo, ei, eorum, eis, eos, o ei, ab eis." In the feminine, "ea, eius, ei, eam, o ea, ab ea." In the neuter, "id, eius, ei, id, o id, ab eo." Therefore, when we speak of a journey, we must say "per id iter," not "per eum iter," because "eum" in the accusative case is of the masculine gender; plural "ea itinera, eorum itinerum, eis itineribus, ea itinera, o ea itinera, ab eis itineribus." Likewise "per id templum, per id monstrum, per id tectum, per id caput"; not "per eum," except in the masculine gender only.

3. 1. [On the verb.] We take "verba" in four ways. In the first way, when we take "verba" for deceptions, as when we say "verba illi dedit" (he gave him words), meaning "he deceived him"; whence Terence too said: Cui verba dare difficile est (whom it is hard to deceive). In the second way, we say "verba" for a speech: that "Cicero made words" (gave a speech) in the senate-house. In the third way, we say "verba" for the common sayings that are called proverbs, as Terence said: Verum illud verbum vulgo est quod dici solet (that saying which is commonly wont to be spoken is true). In the fourth way, we say "verba" of these that we run through with tenses and persons, as "clamo, clamas, clamat" (I cry out, you cry out, he cries out). Here there are three persons, "clamo ego, clamas tu, clamat ille"; and the tense is present. Then in the plural, "clamamus nos, clamatis vos, clamant illi"; in the past imperfect tense, "clamabam ego, clamabas tu, clamabat ille, clamabamus nos, clamabatis vos, clamabant illi"; in the past perfect tense, "clamavi ego, clamasti tu, clamavit ille, clamavimus nos, clamastis vos, clamaverunt illi"; in the past pluperfect tense, where we signify not only that we accomplished something, but accomplished it some time ago, and we say "clamaveram ego, clamaveras tu, clamaverat ille, clamaveramus nos, clamaveratis vos, clamaverant illi." In the future tense, "clamabo ego, clamabis tu, clamabit ille, clamabimus nos, clamabitis vos, clamabunt illi." Thus far concerning the indicative mood: all this that we have said belongs to one indicating. Now concerning the imperative mood. It is called "imperative" because it has the sound of commanding. But this mood does not have a first person, because no one commands himself, but it speaks to the second person and to the third. In the singular number, to the second "clama," to the third "clamet"; in the plural, to the second "clamate," to the third "clament." In the future tense, to the second "clamato," to the third likewise "clamato." But why it makes the same form in the second and third, there is a reason; but it must be passed over now, lest we cross over to another matter—let us return to the plural. To the second "clamatote," to the third "clamanto." Now concerning the optative mood. We call it so because it speaks in the manner of one wishing: the first person in the present tense, "utinam clamarem" (would that I were crying out); the second "utinam clamares"; the third "utinam clamaret"; in the plural, in the first person "utinam clamaremus," the second "utinam clamaretis," the third "utinam clamarent." In the past tense, in the first person "utinam clamassem ego," the second "utinam clamasses tu," the third "utinam clamasset ille"; in the plural "utinam clamassemus nos, utinam clamassetis vos, utinam clamassent illi." In the future tense, the first person "utinam clamem ego, utinam clames tu, utinam clamet ille, utinam clamemus, clametis, clament." Now concerning the subjunctive mood. It is called so because it needs some thing in order to complete its sense, as for instance "cum clamem, clames, clamet"; here the sense hangs and needs some thing for the sentence to be completed: as if I should say, "cum clamem, quare me tacere dicis?" (since I am crying out, why do you say that I am silent?). Therefore the conjunctive mood is so called because something is joined to it, so that the sense of the utterance may be full. So let us decline this mood as the earlier ones. It is declined through the three persons: the first person of the present tense "cum clamem," the second "cum clames," the third "cum clamet"; in the plural, the first person "cum clamemus," the second "cum clametis," the third "cum clament." In the past imperfect tense, the first person "cum clamarem," the second "cum clamares," the third "cum clamaret"; in the plural, the first person "cum clamaremus," the second "cum clamaretis," the third "cum clamarent." In the past perfect tense, "cum clamaverim, clamaveris, clamaverit, clamaverimus, clamaveritis, clamaverint." In the past pluperfect tense, "cum clamassem, clamasses, clamasset, clamassemus, clamassetis, clamassent." In the future tense, "cum clamavero, cum clamaveris, clamaverit, clamaverimus, clamaveritis, clamaverint." Now concerning the infinitive mood, which is called "infinite" because the earlier ones define the persons, the first, second, and third; but this mood is without persons, and has only the tense defined beforehand, present, past, and future: as for instance "clamare" is present, "clamasse" past, "clamatum ire" future. See, you observe that it designates only the tenses, not the persons: for in "clamare" and "clamasse" and "clamatum ire" the person is not known, unless you wish to join one and say "clamare debet ille" (he ought to cry out): then, as it were, it becomes definite. But if you do not subjoin "ille" or "ipse" or "iste," it becomes, as it is called, the infinite mood; for it is indefinite in the singular and plural number too. For when I say "clamare, clamasse," it is not defined whether I speak of one or of two. These, then, are the moods through which all verbs are run.

3. 2. [On the first conjugation.] Now, on the model of the one verb that we ran through, let us run through the rest of the verbs; likewise "clamo clamas clamat, amo amas amat, canto cantas cantat, pulso pulsas pulsat, freno frenas frenat, armo armas armat, inpugno inpugnas inpugnat, capto captas captat, paro paras parat, separo separas separat, accuso accusas accusat, mando mandas mandat, gravo gravas gravat, lavo lavas lavat, genero generas generat, creo creas creat, ligo ligas ligat, alligo alligas alligat, sacrifico sacrificas sacrificat, cito citas citat, vulnero vulneras vulnerat, macero maceras macerat, lacero laceras lacerat, aro aras arat, calco calcas calcat, memoro memoras memorat, calcio calcias calciat, lanio lanias laniat, investigo investigas investigat, vallo vallas vallat, domo domas domat, circumvallo circumvallas circumvallat, curvo curvas curvat, medico medicas medicat, consulto consultas consultat, intimo intimas intimat, insinuo insinuas insinuat, frequento frequentas frequentat, celebro celebras celebrat, ministro ministras ministrat, palpo palpas palpat, socio socias sociat, muto mutas mutat, postulo postulas postulat, quasso quassas quassat, denso densas densat, enervo enervas enervat, eviscero evisceras eviscerat, verbero verberas verberat, macto mactas mactat, fugo fugas fugat, elimino eliminas eliminat, celo celas celat, signo signas signat, sono sonas sonat, ventilo ventilas ventilat, contristo contristas contristat, sereno serenas serenat," and the like. To all these is added the letter "r," and they become passive, as "amor amaris amatur, pulsor pulsaris pulsatur, secor secaris secatur, curor curaris curatur." So you run through them all by those moods that we mentioned above, the indicative, imperative, optative, conjunctive, infinite. Now from this sound by which we have arranged the active verbs—that is, those by which we signify that we are doing something—there are like-sounding ones, but they belong to the neutral verbs. But let it not trouble you why they are called "neutral"; the reason is this, that they neither do something nor are acted upon, as "sto, iaceo, cubo, sedeo" (I stand, lie, recline, sit). These are in no action, in no being-acted-upon. There are other neutrals, so called by extended use, that have an action but no being-acted-upon [as "certo," which has an action, but we do not say "certor"]: such as "curro" (I run). Of this sound there are many that, although they end in "o," do not admit "or," as these verbs: "pugno pugnas pugnat, bello bellas bellat, ceno cenas cenat, nato natas natat, ambulo ambulas ambulat, navigo navigas navigat, commeo commeas commeat, aestuo aestuas aestuat, regno regnas regnat, gelo gelas gelat, dico dicas dicat, exulo exulas exulat, sacrifico sacrificas sacrificat, cachinno cachinnas cachinnat." All these are of the first conjugation, which sends the second person of all these verbs into the syllable "as," as "canto cantas, pulso pulsas, freno frenas, impugno impugnas, armo armas, salto saltas, curvo curvas, pugno pugnas." Therefore, now that you have heard the first conjugation, you ought to know that the second person of the verb ends through the syllable "as." For it is called "conjugation" (coniugatio) because it joins (coniungat) many things to itself into one sound [these conjugations the Greeks call syzygiai]. So you run through all similar ones found, on this model.

3. 3. [On the second conjugation.] The second conjugation is the one that is likewise sought in the second person, and ends through "es," as "teneo tenes, praebeo praebes, moneo mones, deleo deles, tergeo terges, arceo arces, egeo eges, terreo terres, mulceo mulces, impleo imples, compleo comples, repleo reples, suppleo supples, mordeo mordes, spondeo spondes," and the like. And to these is added the letter "r," and they become passive: "teneor teneris, mordeor morderis, arceor arceris, mulceor mulceris, impleor impleris." You will decline these passives through the moods and tenses and persons: through the moods, as I said, indicative, imperative [promissive], optative, conjunctive, infinite—this is what I meant by "through the moods"; through the tenses, that is, through present, pasts, or futures. And by persons I meant first, second, and third, as "teneor teneris tenetur"; in the plural "tenemur tenemini tenentur." These things you will observe as I said. But just as, as I said above, the first conjugation, which ends in "as," as "amo amas," takes neutral verbs too, as "certo certas, nato natas," in which the letter "r" is not admitted (for we do not say "certor, nator"), so in this second conjugation, which ends in "eo, es," as "moneo mones, doceo doces," there are many that do not admit the letter "r" in the first person, as "algeo alges, scateo scates": for "algeor" is not Latin; so "ferveo ferves, torpeo torpes, pendeo pendes, invideo invides"—although the poet Horace said "invideor," but this by a new usurpation; so "emineo emines," for we do not say "emineor." These two conjugations, the first and the second, which we said end in "as" and in "es," as "amo amas, moneo mones," always send the future tense into the syllable "bo," as "amabo, monebo."

3. 4. [On the third and fourth conjugation.] So you will keep the rule that you send the future tense into the syllable "bo," wherever it applies, because there are two other conjugations that send the future tense into the syllable "am," not into "bo," and these conjugations are called the "third shortened" and the "third lengthened." The "third shortened" is the one that sends the imperative mood into a short "e," as "scribe, tolle, carpe, occide, sere, lege." So you have seen the imperative end thus. The third conjugation is the shortened one, which always sends the future tense into "am," never into "bo," as "scribam, legam, tollam, carpam"; for it is not Latin if you say "scribebo, legebo, tollebo, carpebo." The third conjugation likewise, the lengthened one, is gathered from the same imperative mood. For when the imperative mood ends in the letter "i," it is the third lengthened conjugation, as "audi, nutri, senti, muni, sarci, leni," and others. These likewise send the future tense into "am," as "muniam, leniam, nutriam, audiam." But the third shortened has a short "e" before the last syllable in the infinitive mood, as "scribere, legere, tollere, carpere"; the third lengthened, however, has an "i" before the last syllable in the infinitive mood, which "i" is lengthened, as "munire, lenire, audire, sarcire, sentire, venire." Whence in all verbs these conjugations are observed: those that end in "as" and in "es" send the future tense into "bo," as I have said rather often; but those that end in "is" send the future tense into "am," never into "bo," unless on the presumption of authority—for the art forbids it. But we set down some verbs of the third shortened conjugation, from which you may also derive others. They are these: "lego, tollo, erigo, carpo, cognosco, capio, fugio, mergo, sero, arguo, accipio, pono, sumo, ascendo, expono, incipio." These take the letter "r" and make passive verbs, "legor, carpor, capior," etc. Under this form are neutrals, which do not take the letter "r," as "cado" (for we do not say "cador"). Likewise "ruo" (for we do not say "ruor"), "facio" (for we do not say "facior"). Likewise "fulgesco, mitesco, fervesco, algesco, torpesco, compesco, nigresco." All these do not have the letter "r," and are called neutrals [inchoative verbs that end in "sco"]. So you will remember that neutrals never admit the letter "r."

3. 5. [On the common verb, whence it is so called, and on its conjugation.] There remain two other kinds of verbs, which are called "common" and "deponent." But they are called "common" because they hold in common, at once, under one sound, both the active and the passive—just as in nouns the common gender is so called which holds both the masculine and the feminine under one sound, as "sacerdos" or "homo": "hic et haec sacerdos" it makes, "hic et haec homo"; so these verbs are called "common." And they never put off the letter "r," lest they not be Latin: as "osculor," if you take away the letter "r" and say "osculo," it is not Latin. And we say, when we are acting, "osculor te" (I kiss you); but when we are being acted upon and affected by another, we say "osculor a te" (I am kissed by you). So "criminor te," not "crimino": when we signify an action, that is, when we cast a charge, we say "criminor te" (I charge you); but when a charge is cast upon us, we say "criminor a te" (I am charged by you), that is, "I hear a charge from you," and the signification is passive. These verbs are declined like the earlier ones, through moods, tenses, persons. In the present tense, "criminor, criminaris, criminatur, criminamur, criminamini, criminantur." In the past imperfect, "criminabar, criminabaris, criminabatur, criminabamur, criminabamini, criminabantur." In the past perfect, "criminatus sum, es, est; criminati sumus, estis, sunt." In the past pluperfect, "criminatus eram, eras, erat, criminati eramus, eratis, erant." In the future, "criminabor, criminaberis, criminabitur, criminabimur, criminabimini, criminabuntur." The imperative mood always ends in these verbs in "re," so that you say "criminare illum," that is, "cast a charge upon him." In the optative mood thus, "utinam criminarer, criminareris, criminaretur, criminaremur, criminaremini, criminarentur." In the past perfect, "utinam criminatus essem, esses, esset, criminati essemus, essetis, essent." In the future, "utinam criminer, crimineris, criminetur, criminemur, criminemini, criminentur." In the conjunctive mood, "cum criminer, crimineris, criminetur, criminemur, criminemini, criminentur." In the past imperfect, "cum criminarer, criminareris, criminaretur, criminaremur, criminaremini, criminarentur." In the past perfect, "cum criminatus sim, sis, sit; criminati simus, sitis, sint." In the past pluperfect, "cum criminatus essem, esses, esset; criminati essemus, essetis, essent." In the future tense, "cum criminatus ero, eris, erit; cum criminati erimus, eritis, erunt." In the infinite mood, which we said signifies no persons, it makes in the present "criminari"; in the past "criminatum esse"; in the future "criminatum iri." On this model you will decline the common verbs thus: "hortor, iaculor, osculor, nidificor, tutor, consolor, scrutor, moror, feneror, amplexor, furor" (whence comes "furor furaris furatur"), "comitor, recordor, reminiscor, perconctor, minor, gestor, piscor, odoror, aucupor, venor, contemplor, speculor, sector, veneror, dignor, precor, miseror, vador" [that is, I pledge my word], "calumnior," and others that never put off the letter "r"; for if they put it off, they are not Latin. For who would say "reminisco," or "recordo," or "preco," or "digno," or "secto"? So you will remember to utter these always with the letter "r."

3. 6. [On the deponent verb.] There remains the deponent verb, which is so called because it puts down (deponit) something of the quantity of the common verb. For whereas the common verb has four participles—present "criminans"; future "criminaturus"; past "criminatus"; future from the passive signification "criminandus"—this the deponent verb does not have. And it is called "deponent" because it puts down one participle of the future tense from the passive verb, which ends in the syllable "dus." As for instance "opinor" or "minor" are deponent verbs. One comes to the participle of the present tense, and it makes "minans"; in the future tense it makes "minaturus"; in the past it makes "minatus." In the future from the passive signification it does not make "minandus"; so "opinans opinaturus opinatus," it does not make "opinandus"; or if you say "moriens moriturus mortuus," it does not make "moriendus," because it is not Latin. So this deponent verb too runs thus through moods and tenses and persons. As was said above: just as the common verb, with the letter "r" not put down, is Latin, but with it put down is not Latin, so deponents too, when they have lost the letter "r," are not Latin. So I now subjoin a few deponent verbs; the rest Latin usage will teach. They are these: "opinor, minor, grator, gratulor, arbitror, gratificor, auspicor, misereor, lenocinor, meditor, luctor, conor, suffragor, vescor, laetor, morior, stomachor, orior, hariolor, argutor, paciscor, complector, adversor, angor, queror" (from the signification of "querela," complaint), "macior, ratiocinor, argumentor, blandior, fabulor, nitor, labor" (from the signification of "lapsus," a slipping), "vagor, rusticor, concionor" [that is, I speak to the people], "moechor, iucundor, vociferor, nanciscor" [which is "I find"], "suspicor," and others. These you will remember, as I said already, to utter with the letter "r"; for no one says "blandio" or "pacisco." So all these are declined on the model of the declension of the common verb, which I called "criminor."

3. 7. [On the neuter-passives and impersonals.] We have treated, then, the active verbs, which are so called from acting (agendo); we have treated the neutrals, which receive that name because they neither do something nor are acted upon, as we said, "sto, iaceo, sedeo, cubo," and others. We have treated also other neutrals, which do something but are not acted upon, and are called as it were "semi-neutral," as "nato, curro"; or are acted upon and do not act, as "vapulo, pendeo, sudo, algeo, aestuo, ferveo, febrio, somnio, meridio, rigeo, frigeo, tumeo, langueo, oleo, tepeo, rubeo, fulgeo, stupeo," and others. In all these—both in those that in no way do anything nor are acted upon, and in those that act and are not acted upon, and in those that are acted upon in some way and yet do not act—the letter "r" is never added: for they begin to be not Latin. We have treated likewise the common verbs, and set out whence they are called "common," because they hold in themselves both action and being-acted-upon. We have treated the deponents, and set out why they are called "deponent," because they put down the participle of the future tense from the passive signification, which ends in "dus," since we do not say "moriendus, gloriandus, blandiendus," and the others that come from deponent verbs. To be sure, the writers of the arts added another species of verb, which they called "neuter-passive." But euphony invented this newish kind of verb, and it is found in few verbs, as "gaudeo." Since it was harsh to say in the past tense "gavisi," they changed the sound from the past tense of the passive verb: "gaudeo gavisus sum"; so "audeo ausus sum, soleo solitus sum"; so "fido fisus sum." But of this new kind there are very few.
There are also certain other, few verbs that are called "impersonal," and end through the syllables "et" and "tur," as "pudet, taedet, decet, libet, poenitet, paret, piget, miseret, liquet": and they are called "impersonal" because they lack two persons, the first and second, and have the third person only. For we do not say "pudeo pudes," nor "deceo deces," nor "libeo libes," nor "pigeo piges," nor "misereo miseres," nor "poeniteo poenites," nor "pareo pares," nor "liqueo liques." Now you should know that "paret" and "liquet" signify this, which we express by "it is manifest." As if you should say: "Et si paret hoc te dixisse, iniuriam fecisti" (and if it is manifest that you said this, you have done a wrong): this is what "liquet" signifies, that is, "it is manifest." But "taedet" signifies that there is weariness (taedium), just as "piget" signifies, as it were, sluggishness (pigritia). For when we say "piget me fecisse," this is to say, "my mind does not rise to approve what I did." Now all these verbs are declined thus: "pudet me, piget me, miseret me, poenitet me." Besides these, "libet" and "licet, paret" and "liquet." For with these we join the dative case, as "libet mihi, licet mihi, paret mihi, liquet mihi." But the other species, which ends in "tur," is itself also of the impersonal verbs, as "itur, curritur, certatur, pugnatur": they do not have a first and second person; for we do not say "eor iris," nor "curror curreris," nor "pugnor pugnaris," nor "certor certaris." And these verbs are declined: "itur a me, a te, ab illo; pugnatur a me, a te, ab illo; certatur a me, a te, ab illo." So in the past imperfect, "ibatur a me, a te, ab illo; currebatur a me, a te, ab illo; pugnabatur a me, a te, ab illo." So in the past perfect, "itum est a me, a te, ab illo; cursum est a me, a te, ab illo; certatum est a me, a te, ab illo; pugnatum est a me, a te, ab illo." So in the past pluperfect, "itum erat a me, a te, ab illo; cursum erat a me, a te, ab illo; pugnatum erat a me, a te, ab illo; certatum erat a me, a te, ab illo." So in the future tense, "ibitur a me, a te, ab illo; curretur a me, a te, ab illo; pugnabitur a me, a te, ab illo; certabitur a me, a te, ab illo"; so in the plural, "a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the imperative mood, "eatur a me, a te, ab illo; a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the optative mood, in the present tense, "utinam iretur a me, a te, ab illo; a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the past perfect or pluperfect, "utinam itum esset a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the future tense, "utinam eatur a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the conjunctive mood, in the present tense, "cum curratur a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the past imperfect, "cum curreretur a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the past perfect, "cum cursum sit a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the past pluperfect, "cum cursum esset vel fuisset a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the future, "cum curretur a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the infinite mood, in the present tense, "curri debet a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the past tense, "cursum esse debuit a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis." In the future tense, "cursum iri debet a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis."

3. 8. [On inchoative, frequentative, and desiderative verbs.] There are also other verbs that are called "inchoative," and arise from a sudden affection, and end in the syllable "sco," as "ardeo ardesco, caleo calesco, candeo candesco, labo labasco, tepeo tepesco, ferveo fervesco, vireo viresco, algeo algesco, dormio dormisco," and others. All these do not have a past tense: for "caleo" can make "calui," and "ferveo" "fervi," and it was not "calesco" or "fervesco" that made "calui" or "fervi," but from "ferveo" comes "fervi," from "caleo" "calui"; for "calescui, fervescui," and "virescui" are not Latin. And so the inchoatives are said not to have a past tense, because the things we are beginning are not yet completed. And all those that I said end in "sco" are always neutral, and do not take the letter "r"; and therefore I warned that they are neutral, lest it disturb you that there are certain verbs ending in "scor," which yet admit a past tense, as "obliviscor oblitus sum, paciscor pactus sum, adipiscor adeptus sum": and these are not neutral, in which we said the past tenses are wanting. There are others that are called "frequentative," by which something done more frequently is signified, as from "dico" "dictito," from "lego" "lectito," from "scribo" "scriptito," from "clamo" "clamito," from "cio" "cito," which means "I call frequently," whence now we say that some are "cited" by the voice of a herald, that is, called frequently, and others. There are very few others that are called "desiderative," as "esurio," that is, "I desire to eat"; "parturio," "I desire to give birth"; and as was said by Cicero of the philosophers, "morturiunt," "they desire to die." But these, as I said, are few, that have been brought into the sound of the Latin tongue.

4. 1. [On the adverb.] The adverb is so called because it adheres to the verb (adhaeret verbo): nor can the force of the verb sound more significantly unless an adverb is joined to it. For instance, the verb is "dico, navigo, valeo, curro," and others: these are not of full signification unless adverbs are added, as "bene, male, docte, feliciter": as "bene dicit" (he speaks well), "imperite dicit" (he speaks unskillfully), "prospere navigat" (he sails prosperously), "infeliciter navigat" (he sails unhappily), "integre valeo" (I am wholly well), "debiliter valet" (he is feebly well), "agiliter currit" (he runs nimbly), "tardius currit" (he runs more slowly). You see that the full signification of verbs cannot be unless adverbs have been joined. So other adverbs are joined to complete the verb's signification, such as adverbs of place and adverbs of time: as "hic dico, hic habito, intro eo, intus sum, foras eo, foris sum, hinc navigo." So of time: "cras navigo, hodie navigo"; and others, which have been amply treated in other arts, and are plain to the understanding, and therefore I have not wished to set them down, because, against the tedium of learning, a fitting brevity is opportune. To be sure, in adverbs we ought to observe when they end in "e," when in the syllable "ter"; this the ablative case teaches. For when the ablative ends in "o," the adverb sends it into "e," as from "doctus" "docte," from "iustus" "iuste," from "perfectus" "perfecte," from "pius" "pie," from "validus" "valide," from "fortunatus" "fortunate," from "magnus" "magne," from "amplus" "ample," from "minimus" "minime," and others. But when the adverb ends in the syllable "ter," likewise, as I said, the ablative teaches: from "agilis" "agiliter," from "humilis" "humiliter," from "acer" "acriter," from "fortis" "fortiter," from "levis" "leviter," from "gravis" "graviter," from "iugis" "iugiter." But there are some that, since they would sound harsh, have been let go, and are not to be treated by this rule, as we do not say "mititer" from "mitis," nor "tristiter" from "tristis." Such, lest they sound harsh, lost the last syllable, as from "sapiens" "sapienter," not "sapientiter"; from "prudens" "prudenter," not "prudentiter"; from "praestans" "praestanter," not "praestantiter." So, then, let us observe that we neither apply euphony to the rule nor reject euphony. For euphony—that is, the pleasantness of sounding well—has been admitted into Latin speech, so that it may temper harshness; and there has been a departure from art and reason where harshness offended the hearing. As Cicero says: It has been obtained from reason that it be lawful to err for the sake of pleasantness. But yet euphony has been admitted in few cases. For reason is rich and of the widest jurisdiction. To be sure, against these rules authority has dared, and in a few cases presumed, so that Cicero said "humaniter" when he ought to have said "humane"; and Terence: Vitam parce ac duriter agebat (he led his life sparingly and hardly), for "dure." But yet the authors themselves more modestly and with a certain shame presumed a few things against the rule. For they also said "falso" for "false," and "necessario" for "necessarie," and "sedulo" for "sedule," and "raro" for "rare," and "crebro" for "crebre," and "tuto" for "tute"; so too others, but few, usurped not licentiously but bashfully.
To be sure, there are adverbs ending through other syllables too: from "fundus" "funditus," from "caelum" "caelitus," from "radix" "radicitus," from "penetralia loca" "penitus," from "stirps" "stirpitus." Likewise in "im": from "vicus" "vicatim," from "ostium" "ostiatim," from "viri" "viritim." Likewise from "nimius" "nimis"; as Ne quid nimis (nothing in excess). They end in "ens," as "recens," that is, "in recent time." Virgil: Sole recens orto (with the sun recently risen), that is, in recent time. So all these are adverbs without distinction. Likewise between "intro" and "intus" there is this difference: "intro" is in motion, "intus" in position: as "intro eo" (I go inside), "intus sum" (I am inside). For "eo" is motion, "sum" is position.
There is also a certain obscurity in the adverbs "secundo, tertio, quarto, quinto, sexto," and "secundum, tertium, quartum, quintum, sextum": as for instance "secundo factus est consul" and "secundum factus consul." Now "secundo" pertains to order, "secundum" to number: as for instance when I say "secundo factus est consul," it pertains, as I said, to order, that first another was made, and so another in the second place. But when we say "secundum consul," or "tertium, quartum, quintum, sextum," it pertains to number, that he was consul six times. Whence Cicero of Marius says thus: "sextum consul," that is, one who held six consulships, and "septimum consul," which is, he held the consulship seven times. This Varro distinguished in the books of Numbers. And the rest in adverbs are now plain, and easy to understand from whatever arts.

4. 2. [Likewise on the adverb.] An adverb is a part of speech which, added to a verb, explains and completes its signification: as "scribo bene" (I write well), "lego optime" (I read very well). To the adverb belong signification, figure, degree. Adverbs either arise from themselves, as "heri" (yesterday), "nuper" (lately), or pass over from others, as "docte, sapienter," from that which is "doctus" and "sapiens."
The significations of adverbs are many. For they are either of time, as "heri, nuper"; or of person, as "mecum, tecum"; or of place, as "hic, istic." But adverbs of place are some interrogative, "unde, ubi, qua"; others responsive, "illinc, hinc, illo." Some are of double form, as "intus, intro; foris, foras." Their observation is this: "foris" and "intus" are in a place, as "intus est, intus fuit, intus futurus est; foris erat, fuerat, futurus erat." Of place from which: "intus venio, foris venio." But "foras" and "intro" signify toward a place, as "foras eo, intro eo, foras ieram, intro ieram." These are figured in four ways: through a place, toward a place, in a place, from a place. Through a place, as: hac iter Elysium nobis (this way is our road to Elysium). Toward a place, as: huc ades, o Galatea (come hither, O Galatea). In a place, as:
here too the Narician Locrians set their walls.
From a place, as:
hence, as I departed, the god drove me to your shores.
There are some that equally signify in a place and from a place, as "intus sum, intus venio." There are some that signify in a place and into a place and from a place, as "penitus sum, eo, venio." There are adverbs having the signification of number, as "semel, bis, ter." Of demonstration, as "en, ecce." Of affirmation, as "quidni, quippe." Of exhortation, as "eia." Of interrogation, as "cur, quare, nempe." Of likeness, as "sic, quasi." Of comparison or preference, as "magis, potius." Of doubting, as "fortasse." Of assenting, as "plane, sane." Of separation, as "seorsum, segregatim." Of wishing, as "utinam." Of calling, as "heus." Of answering, as "heu." Of disparaging, as "nequaquam, frustra." Of swearing, as "edepol, ecastor." Of forbidding, as "ne." Of denying, as "non, haud, minime." Of gathering, as "una, simul." Of ordering, as "deinde, denique." Of wondering, as "papae." Of praising, as "euge." Of exclaiming, as "pro." Of grieving, as "ei." Of choosing, as "vaha." Of groaning, as "ei, em." But because these signify an affection of the mind, they are by many called "interjections"—those who want the interjection separated from the adverb, and to be some part of speech, for this reason, that it is proper to the adverb that it can be joined to a verb. But the Greeks do not separate the interjection from the adverb, for this reason, that they assign the motions of the mind to quality, and think all these adverbs to be under the genus of quality. There are adverbs of quantity, as "longe, alte"; of quality, as "bene, male."
Adverbs pass over not only from appellatives—that is, from common nouns, as from "pulcher" "pulchre"—but also from proper nouns, as "Tullius" "Tulliane." From pronouns too, as from "meus, tuus" "meatim, tuatim"; from verbs too, as "curro" "cursim"; they are derived from both, as "pedetentim" from "pes" and "tento," that is, from a noun and a verb at once. There are also adverbs of which it is uncertain whether they pass over from a noun or from a verb, as "furtim." For it is uncertain whether it passes over from "fur," which is a noun, or from the verb "furor furaris." From participles some refuse them; but they are found, as from "decens" "decenter."

4. 3. [Adverbs drawn from nouns have six endings. A common rule.] Adverbs drawn from nouns are ended in six ways: either in "e," as "docte, pulchre, honeste"; or in "r," as "velociter"; or in "im," as "ubertim, singillatim"; or in "us," as "radicitus, mordicus"; or in "u," as "noctu, diu"; or in "i," as "domi, humi, vesperi." Adverbs of quality ending in the letter "e" ought to be lengthened. Yet there are exceptions, those that waver in the comparative or superlative degree, as "bene, male"; or those that do not pass over from an appellative, as "impune, saepe." For the rest, "facile" and "difficile," which are set down as adverbs, are nouns, from which arise these adverbs, "faciliter" and "difficiliter": but usage has claimed these as adverbs, so to speak. Whatever nouns are of quality or quantity, if they are ended in the dative singular with the letter "o," send adverbs into a lengthened "e": as "iusto" "iuste." But the ancients set these down indifferently, as "humaniter, duriter." But whatever are ended in the letter "i" send into the syllable "ter": as "agili, nobili, audaci, difficili," "agiliter, nobiliter, audaciter, difficiliter." But some of these we say by syncope for euphony's sake, as "audacter, difficulter, sapienter, constanter."
There are adverbs common with other parts of speech. They are common with nouns, as Sallust says: falso queritur de natura sua genus humanum (the human race complains falsely of its own nature), for "false." Virgil: et pede terram crebra ferit (and she beats the ground often with her foot), and:
much did he, a suppliant, beg of Jove with upturned hands.
With the conjunction, as "ut," when it is an adverb, signifies several things. Likeness thus:
as once in lofty Crete the Labyrinth is said.
Time thus: ut regem aequaevum (as the king of like age). And:
as I saw, how I was undone; how an evil madness swept me away.
Quality, as:
the Trojan power and the lamentable kingdom, how great it was.
Quantity, as:
from what shores, O Hector, long awaited, do you come? how, after the many deaths of your people . . .
And it signifies a conjunction thus:
Cupid, changed in face and features as he was, for sweet Ascanius.
With the preposition, as "pro." But figure in adverbs is either simple, as "docte, prudenter," or compound, as "indocte, imprudenter." Degrees belong to adverbs whenever the appellatives from which they pass over are compared, as "docte, doctius, doctissime." They also receive diminution, as "meliuscule." Although those that arise from themselves also receive comparison, as "nuper, nuperrime."
To all adverbs a preposition ought not to be added separately, although "abhinc" is read in Terence:
meanwhile a certain woman, three years ago (abhinc).
And in Virgil:
thereafter (exinde) we are sent across the deep to Elysium.
And "dehinc," as: dehinc ubi libera colla (thereupon, when the necks are free), and: deinde feraces plantae immittuntur (then fruitful shoots are set in): all of which, and any others like them, as "proinde," it was decided to bring forth against the rule of accents, lest the prepositions, added separately, should seem to be adverbs.

5. 1. This part of speech takes a portion both from the verb and from the noun: and from this it is called "participle" (participium). Now this part of speech ends in the present tense in the syllables "ens" and "ans," as "legens, amans." In the future tense in "rus," as "legens lecturus, amans amaturus." In the past, "lectus, amatus." In the future, "legendus, amandus." You see that this part of speech goes through tenses: all these it borrows from the verb. For tenses belong to the verb. But that it is declined through cases—this it borrows from the noun. For case-declension pertains to the noun, as "hic legens, huius legentis, huic legenti, hunc legentem, o legens, ab hoc legente." Therefore, because this part of speech runs both through tenses and through cases, it is called "participle," because it takes a portion of the noun and a portion of the verb. It is not a laborious part of speech, but easy to the understanding. For in the present tense it ends in "ans" and in "ens," as "amans, legens." In the future, with the signification of acting, in "rus," as "amaturus, lecturus." From the signification of being-acted-upon, in "tus" and in "dus," as "amatus, legendus." Now the past tense itself is ended in three syllables: in "tus," as "lectus, scriptus"; in "sus," as "occisus, visus"; in "xus," as "fixus": you will find no more. So, as we said, the present in "ens" and in "ans," the future in "rus," the past in "tus," the future tense in "dus." There are, to be sure, nouns that by their sound are thought to be participles, but are nouns. For participles are those that come from verbs, as from "lego," "legens, lecturus, lectus, legendus." "Tunicatus" and "galeatus" and "clypeatus" and "tropaeatus" are nouns, not participles, because they do not come from a verb. There is one participle of the past tense in all the Latin tongue which has been converted into the form [or declension] of a noun, namely "mortuus." For it is from "morior," and the participle of the past tense ought to have ended in "tus" with one "u," not with two. For where the letter "u" is doubled in the nominative, it is a noun, not a participle, as "fatuus, ingenuus, arduus, carduus, exiguus, belluus," as Cicero said, and the like. Against the rule of participles, "mortuus" is thought to be a participle, but it has been converted into the force and rule of a noun.

6. 1. A conjunction is a part of speech binding together and ordering the sentence. To the conjunction belong figure, order, force. Figure is that by which the figure appears, simple or compound. But indeed order too appears, which can only be placed before, as "nam"; which can be subjoined, as "que"; which can be placed before and subjoined, as "et, igitur."
The force of conjunctions is divided into five species. For there are copulative ones: "et, que, ast, at, atque." Disjunctive: "aut, vel, ve, nec, neque, neve, an, utrum." Expletive: "quidem, equidem, autem, tamen, porro, videlicet, proinde, denique, utique." Causal: "si, etsi, tametsi, etiamsi, siquidem, quando, quandoquidem, quin, quinetiam, sin, sinetiam, quamquam, quamvis, sinautem, seu, sive, nam, namque, nisi, nisisi, enim, etenim, sed, ut, praeterea, interea, quamobrem, quare, praesertim, item, itemque, caeterum, alioquin." Rational: "ita, itaque, enim, enimvero, quia, quapropter, quippe, quoniam, quoniamquidem, ergo, igitur, ideo, idcirco, scilicet, propterea." Of these, "et," the copulative, signifies many things. Often it passes over into the force of another species. Now into the expletive, as:
and what so great cause was there for you of seeing Rome?
Now for quality or quantity, as:
I fear the Greeks even (et) when they bring gifts.
Now for the disjunctive, as:
and does anyone besides adore the divinity of Juno, or as a suppliant lay an offering on her altars?
Now it is set down for the causal, as: et claro silvas . . . for "nam claro silvas . . ."; as:
of whom Iphytus, now heavier with age, and Pelias, slow too with the wound of Ulysses,
for "etiam vulnere tardus" (slow also with the wound); now it is taken for an adverb of ordering, as: corpusque lavant frigentis et ungunt (and they wash the cold body and anoint it), for "deinde ungunt" (then they anoint). Likewise "aut," the conjunction, signifies many things. For now it is taken for an adverb of separation, as:
before the city the boys and the youth in their first bloom exercise on horseback, and break in the chariots in the dust, or (aut) bend keen bows, or (aut) hurl pliant javelins with their arms.
Now for a signification of time, as:
or (aut) before the faces of the gods she walks in state at the rich altars,
that is, "now before the faces of the gods she walks at the altars." Likewise:
or (aut) tramples the ranks with his car, or (aut) hurls at the fleeing the spears he has snatched.
The figures of conjunctions are two: simple, as "nam"; compound, as "namque." The order of conjunctions is in this, that they are either prepositive conjunctions, as "at, ast"; or subjunctive, as "que, autem"; or common, as "et, igitur." There are also expressions of which it is uncertain whether we should name them prepositions or adverbs, which nonetheless are all easily distinguished. For conjunctions too are found set down for other conjunctions, with their force changed.

7. 1. [Accusative, ablative, and either-case prepositions.] All are called "prepositions" in general. But these are the species: some accusative, some ablative, some of either. The accusative ones are uttered with the accusative case, as "ad, apud, ante, adversus, cis, citra, circum, circa, contra, erga, extra, intra, infra, iuxta, ob, penes, per, prope, propter, praeter, post, pone, secundum, supra, trans, ultra." In these prepositions the genders of nouns are to be kept, that is, masculine, feminine, neuter, common. The numbers too are to be kept, as for instance in the masculine singular "ad agrum"; in the plural "ad agros." In the feminine singular "ad villam" or "ad possessionem." In the plural "ad villas" or "ad possessiones." So the neuter, in the singular "ad templum, ad Capitolium"; in the plural "ad templa, ad Capitolia." So in the common gender, in the singular number "ad civem, ad hostem, ad sacerdotem"; in the plural "ad cives, ad hostes, ad sacerdotes." So, then, you will observe all prepositions, keeping, as I said, the genders, keeping the numbers, singular and plural. Keeping likewise the pronouns according to gender: masculine "ad hunc"; in the plural "ad hos"; feminine "ad hanc"; in the plural "ad has." Neuter "ad hoc templum vado"; in the plural "ad haec templa." So in the common gender, "ad hunc et ad hanc sacerdotem"; in the plural "ad hos et has sacerdotes." The ablative prepositions take the ablative both in the singular and in the plural, keeping the genders and numbers, as for instance "a, ab, abs, cum, coram, clam, de, e, ex, pro, prae, palam, sine, absque, tenus." In the masculine singular, "a fratre"; in the plural "a fratribus." In the feminine singular, "a sorore"; in the plural "a sororibus," or "a civitate," etc. In the masculine singular with "ab," "ab amico"; in the plural "ab amicis," "ab agro, ab agris." In the feminine singular, "ab urbe"; in the plural "ab urbibus." In the neuter singular, "ab templo"; in the plural "ab templis." In the common gender, singular "a cive"; plural "a civibus," "ab hoste, ab hostibus." Keep this declension in all these ablative prepositions according to genders and numbers. 2. [The double kind of prepositions that are called "of either."] There remains the third species of prepositions, which are called "of either" (utriusque), which take both the accusative case and the ablative. But the reasoning of these prepositions escapes most people, and by what distinction it is to be understood has not been openly set out. This difference is in motion and in position. But some have thought that motion takes only the accusative: yet it takes both, but by a fixed reasoning. For motion takes only the accusative when we signify ourselves being moved from places into other places, as "curro in forum" or "in campum." If we say that we run into the forum or into the field from another place, we take the accusative case. But if within one and the same place, the ablative: as "curro in foro, curro in campo"; so "ambulo in foro" and "ambulo in campo." If we walk from another place into the forum, we take the accusative. If we walk in the same place, we take the ablative, as "ambulo in foro"; so "cadit in forum" and "cadit in foro."
and she steps upon the ground, and hides her head among the clouds.
As is: In arvis altius ingreditur (in the fields she steps more loftily), that is, "she walks": you see that it is motion, and yet claims the ablative for itself; but in a place, as I said, not from place to place. So "lapsus in piscinam" and "lapsus in piscina." If one slips into the fishpond from another place, it is accusative; but if he slips within the same fishpond, it is ablative. But "venio" always takes the accusative, because one comes from a place to a place. But when one is already in a place, motion ceases. Likewise motion from place to place, "volvo" or "evolvo":
to find a way by which the Xanthus could roll itself out into the sea:
"to roll itself out from the channel into the sea." But to be rolled in the place itself takes the ablative, as: Fundo volvuntur in imo (they are rolled on the deepest bottom). The other preposition "of either," "sub," in motion from place to place takes the accusative. Of a spear Virgil says thus: Sub altum pectus abit (it passes beneath the deep breast), "sub illam rem." Likewise in a place, the ablative: Troiae sub moenibus altis contigit oppetere (it befell to meet death beneath the high walls of Troy), that is, "to fall or lie." "Beneath the high walls of Troy," he says. Likewise from place to place:
or beneath the shifting shadows as the west winds change them.
And he subjoined "succedimus" (we approach), where there is motion from place to place. "Super": Super Garamantas et Indos proferet imperium (he will extend the empire beyond the Garamantes and the Indians), it is motion from place to place. But in a place: geminae super arbore sidunt (the pair settle upon a tree). Likewise "subter," from place to place, as: Angusti subter fastigia tecti ingentem Aeneam duxit (beneath the gables of his narrow house he led mighty Aeneas). But in a place:
when yet it pleases to bear all chances beneath the dense tortoise-shell of shields.
So "sub," if motion is made from place to place, takes the accusative: "sub speluncam curro" (I run beneath the cave). But if, placed beneath the cave itself, you run, it takes the ablative: "sub spelunca curro." So "super," if motion is made from place to place, takes the accusative, "super tectum curro" (I run over the roof). But if one, placed over the roof, runs, it takes the ablative: "super tecto curro." So "subter fluctus mergor" (I am plunged beneath the waves): if motion is made from the shore into the plunging, it is accusative, as "mergor subter fluctus"; but if one is already in the waves, "subter fluctibus mergitur." But two adverbs of place help this manner of speaking and observation greatly, "quo" and "ubi." "Quo" is motion into a place; "ubi" is position in a place: as "quo venit telum? in hostem; ubi haesit? in hoste" (whither came the spear? into the enemy; where did it stick? in the enemy). "Quo voluit Catilina telum dirigere? in consulis corpus; ubi voluit defigi? in consulis corpore" (whither did Catiline wish to aim his weapon? into the consul's body; where did he wish it to be fixed? in the consul's body). For thus he says of the dagger: Ut eam putes in consulis corpore defigere (that you would think he was fixing it in the consul's body). So when we say "quo fugimus?" (whither do we flee?), namely into a place. "Ubi latet?" (where does he lie hidden?), in a place. Therefore, as we said, these two adverbs help greatly toward distinguishing, amid confusion, the prepositions of either case. For thus, by this reasoning of adverbs, that too in the Verrines is cleared up: "Quod ille in capite ab hostium duce acceperat" (the wound that he had received on the head from the leader of the enemy). Therefore the wound was aimed into the head (in caput) and received on the head (in capite). Surely we do not say "quo accipis vulnus?" By no means, but "ubi accipis." And Virgil: Quo ire iubes (whither do you bid me go), signifies into a place; but in a place, "ubi ponere iubes" (where you bid me set it). But position always takes the ablative, because it is contrary to motion. For the noun itself signifies a certain seatedness, as for instance "sum in foro, eram in foro, fui in foro, futurus sum in foro." So simply "sedeo, iaceo, cubo, sto, consisto, haereo." All these pertain to position. They must therefore be pondered and brought into practice, so that now, in this form of the prepositions too, speaking both correctly and with no hesitation, we may show that we have studied more diligently.

8. 1. The interjection is not a part of speech, but the affection of a mind bursting out into voice: and it signifies either joy, as "evax"; or bitterness, as "heu"—among the Greeks "pheu." Therefore, as many as are the disturbed motions of the mind, so many voices do they render; and they are called "interjections" because they interrupt the speech, as is that: hic inter densas corilos modo namque gemellos / spem gregis (here just now among the dense hazels the two-born hope of the flock); there follows next an interjection through the letter "a": a, silice in nuda connixa reliquit (alas, she left them, brought forth on the bare flint). In the middle of the speech the letter "a" is interjected.

[Epilogue]
All the parts of speech have been run through by us, such as may suffice for a compendium, whether for the busy or for the careless. To be sure, what we omitted in the treatment of the noun, we now supply. For we ought to know that the names of numbers from four up to a hundred are indeclinable (aptota), of every gender: as "quatuor viri, quatuor feminae, quatuor mancipia." So through all the cases we say "quatuor": as for instance "virorum quatuor, mulierum quatuor, mancipiorum quatuor." So in the accusative, "viros quatuor, feminas quatuor, mancipia quatuor"; in the ablative, "a viris quatuor, a feminis quatuor, a mancipiis quatuor." But I said that they are indeclinable from four up to a hundred, because "two" is declined: "duo, duorum, duobus, duos vel duo, o duo, a duobus." So "three" is declined and runs through the cases: "hi et hae tres, horum et harum trium, his tribus, hos et has tres, o tres, ab his tribus." In the neuter gender, "haec tria, horum trium, his tribus, haec tria, o tria, ab his tribus." From this form, then, we understand how we say "hic duumvir," as it were "one man of two men." So "triumvir," "one man of three men." Therefore this admitted the genitive. But "four" is indeclinable, we say "quatuorvir," or "quinquevir," or "sexvir." Whence Lucan: septemvirque epulis festus (and the septemvir, festive at the feasts): he set down "septem" for the genitive. But from two hundred up to nine hundred the names of numbers are declined, as "hi ducenti," and "hae ducentae," in the neuter "ducenta": "mille" is indeclinable.