0. 1. [1] Correct Latinity (Latinitas) is the careful keeping of uncorrupted speech according to the Roman tongue; and it rests on three modes, that is, on reason, on authority, and on usage: on reason according to the art, on authority according to the writings of those to whom authority has been assigned, and on usage according to those things that have been approved and adopted in the practice of speaking.

0. 2. [2] The parts of speech are eight: noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, participle, conjunction, preposition, interjection.

1. 1. A noun is a part of speech, with case and without tense, signifying fully those things that are stated under some gender that pertains to sex; for although the neuter gender is neither masculine nor feminine, yet because it is marked by the denial of either sex, it has from that very fact a reason to be named among the genders. To the noun belong many things, but most worthy of attention are quality, gender, number, comparison, figure, case.

1. 2. In quality it is considered whether the noun is proper or common (appellativum). A proper noun is whatever thing is set apart, as far as can be, from what is common to all the rest. A common noun is what is shared with many. For "city" (civitas) is a name common to many cities, and therefore it is a common noun. But when we say "Rome" (Roma), we separate it from what is common to the rest; and so this name is proper. So too "river" (fluvius) is a common noun, "Tiber" (Tiberis) a proper one; and "man" (homo) a common noun, "Cicero" a proper one.

1. 3. The simple genders of nouns are three: masculine, as "vir" (man); feminine, as "mulier" (woman); neuter, as "scrinium" (chest). From these variously combined arise another three. Common to either sex, as "hic et haec homo." Common from masculine and neuter, as "hic et hoc victor"; for we say "victor iuvenis" (the victor youth), "victor numen" (the victorious divinity). For the feminine "victrix" makes it common to all genders, as "hic et haec et hoc felix." Certain ones are also called "promiscuous," when both sexes are included under one gender. For "hic passer" (the sparrow) is said, whether it be male or female, and "haec aquila" (the eagle) even if it not be female. But these are not counted separately, because they are assigned either to the masculine or to the feminine gender.

1. 4. The numbers are two. Singular, as "hic vir" (this man). Plural, as "hi viri" (these men).

1. 5. The degrees of comparison are three. Positive, as "iustus" (just). Comparative, as "iustior" (more just). Superlative, as "iustissimus" (most just). By the positive a comparison is made such that a certain equality is shown, as when we say "tam est hic iustus quam ille" (this man is as just as that one). And therefore it governs the nominative case. [3] But in the comparative and superlative there is no equality; rather, one is set before another. Yet so that the comparative governs the ablative case. Sometimes, however, it governs the genitive plural, as when we ask of three bishops, "Which of them (quis illorum) is first?"—wishing to know one of those three as the first of them. But if we say "Which is first to them (quis illis)?", we seem to be inquiring after some fourth person who is prior to those three. Whence too the Apostle Paul, when he said So faith, hope, charity abide, these three (1 Cor 13:13), because charity had already been counted among the three, said but the greatest of these (horum) is charity. For if he had said "but the greater to these (his) is charity," he would seem to be bringing in another charity as a kind of fourth thing, which he would set before the three already enumerated—that is, faith, hope, and charity. Some, less able to grasp this reasoning, have corrected it in a number of manuscripts to "but the greater to these is charity" (maior autem his est caritas). As when we say "iustior hic illo" (this one more just than that), with the ablative; and as when we say "iustior hic quam ille" (this one more just than that one)—then it is compared not only to its own kind, as "velocior homo homine" (one man swifter than another man), but also to a different kind, as "velocior lepus homine" (a hare swifter than a man); and the singular to the plural, as "hic fortior est illis" or "fortior est quam illi" (this one is braver than they); and the plural to the singular, as "hi fortiores illo" or "quam ille" (these braver than he). But the superlative is compared only to its own kind, and only through the genitive plural. For we cannot say "velocissimus equus" except "equorum" (swiftest of horses), or "sapientissimum homo" except "hominum" (wisest of men), and the like. Whether the singular is compared to the plural, as in the cases mentioned, or both are plural, as "fortissimi homines hominum" (the bravest men of men). Sometimes it also takes the genitive singular, when that genitive is indeed singular in sound but plural in sense, as when we say "fortissimus gentis illius" (the bravest of that nation), whence too the poet said: O Tydides, bravest of the race of the Greeks.

1. 6. [4] The figure of nouns is that by which it is considered whether a noun is simple or compound. Now a noun is compound when one thing is made from two or more parts of speech, as when we say "ineptus" (foolish) or "inexpugnabilis" (impregnable). For the former is put together from two, the latter from three parts of speech. To be sure, the particles by which nouns are compounded are either all whole, or all corrupted, or partly whole and partly corrupted. I call them "corrupted" when through the very composition they lose their wholeness, and yet they make the noun no less Latin for that. For when "ineptus" is said, it is certainly Latin; and yet "eptus" is not Latin: for it is corrupted from "aptus." And so, if anyone should say not "ineptus" but "inaptus," the noun would be the less Latin in that it had nothing corrupted.

1. 7. [5] Case is a certain step of declension by the changing of the last syllable. The cases are six: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative. The nominative is that before which can be placed "hic" or "haec" or "hoc." The genitive, before which can be placed "huius." The dative, before which can be placed "huic." The accusative, before which can be placed "hunc, hanc," or "hoc." The vocative, before which can be placed "o." The ablative, before which can be placed "ab hoc," or "ab hac," or "ab hoc." This is in the singular number; for in the plural "hi" and "hae" and "haec" are placed before the nominative. Before the genitive "horum" and "harum" and "horum." Before the dative "his." Before the accusative "hos" or "has" or "haec." Before the vocative "o." Before the ablative "ab his." There are those who would add another case, which they call the seventh, as when we say "virtute beatus" (blessed by virtue) and "navi vectus" (carried by ship), that is, "through virtue" and "through a ship," and the like.

1. 8. Nouns, then, are declined in this way. "Tullius," a proper noun of the masculine gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative singular "hic Tullius," genitive "huius Tulli," dative "huic Tullio," accusative "hunc Tullium," vocative "o Tulli," ablative "ab hoc Tullio"; and in the plural, nominative "hi Tullii," genitive "horum Tulliorum," dative "his Tulliis," accusative "hos Tullios," vocative "o Tullii," ablative "ab his Tulliis."

1. 9. The feminine in this way. "Tullia," a proper noun of the feminine gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative singular "haec Tullia," genitive "huius Tulliae," dative "huic Tulliae," accusative "hanc Tulliam," vocative "o Tullia," ablative "ab hac Tullia"; and in the plural, nominative "hae Tulliae," genitive "harum Tulliarum," dative "his Tulliis," accusative "has Tullias," vocative "o Tulliae," ablative "ab his Tulliis."

2. 10. The neuter in this way. "Scrinium," a common noun of the neuter gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative, accusative, and vocative case, which will be declined thus: "hoc scrinium, huius scrinii, huic scrinio, hoc scrinium, o scrinium, ab hoc scrinio." In the plural, "haec scrinia, horum scriniorum, his scriniis, haec scrinia, o scrinia, ab his scriniis."

2. 11. [6] Common to the masculine and feminine gender in this way. "Homo," a common noun, of the masculine and feminine gender, the singular and plural number, the simple figure, the nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative "hic et haec homo," genitive "huius hominis," dative "huic homini," accusative "hunc et hanc hominem," vocative "o homo," ablative "ab hoc et ab hac homine"; and in the plural, nominative "hi et hae homines," genitive "horum et harum hominum," dative "his hominibus," accusative "hos et has homines," vocative "o homines," ablative "ab his hominibus."

2. 12. Common from masculine and neuter in this way. "Infector," a common noun, of the masculine and neuter gender, the singular number, the compound figure, the nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: in the singular number and the nominative case "hic et hoc infector," then "huius infectoris, huic infectori, hunc infectorem et hoc infector, o infector, ab hoc infectore"; and in the plural "hi infectores, et haec infectritia, horum infectorum, his infectoribus, hos infectores et haec infectoria, o infectores et infectritia, ab his infectoribus."

2. 13. Common to every gender in this way. "Prudens," a common noun, of every gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: "hic et haec et hoc prudens, huius prudentis, huic prudenti, hunc et hanc prudentem, et hoc prudens, o prudens, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc prudente"; and in the plural: "hi et hae prudentes et haec prudentia, horum et harum et horum prudentium, his prudentibus, hos et has prudentes et haec prudentia, o prudentes et prudentia, ab his prudentibus."

2. 14. [7] There are some nouns that are not bent through the cases but nonetheless run through the cases. Now whatever such are of every gender are declined thus. "Nequam," a common noun, of every gender, of either number, of the simple figure, of every case, which will be declined thus: in the nominative "hic et haec et hoc nequam," and then "huius nequam, huic nequam, hunc et hanc et hoc nequam, o nequam, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc nequam"; and in the plural: "hi et hae et haec nequam, horum et harum et horum nequam, his nequam, hos et has et haec nequam, o nequam, ab his nequam."

2. 15. There are likewise those that can neither be bent nor run through the cases, but remain in some one case, or in some few, and yet not in all cases: such as "instar," of the neuter gender and the singular number only, and the nominative and vocative case only; as "Iuppiter," a proper noun of the masculine gender, the singular number only, the nominative and vocative case only; as "sponte," a common noun of the feminine gender, the singular number only, the ablative case only. Those that run through the cases but are not bent are called "inflexible" (inflexibilia). But those that are neither bent nor run through the cases are called "indeclinable" (indeclinabilia).

2. 16. [8] Every ablative case of the singular—excepting certain inflexible and indeclinable ones—ends in some one of the five vowel letters. Whatever nouns, then, end in the ablative case singular in the letter "a" or "o" send the genitive plural into the syllable "rum," the dative and ablative into "is," as "ab hac docta, harum doctarum, his et ab his doctis." Likewise "ab hoc docto, horum doctorum, his et ab his doctis."

2. 17. Whatever end in the ablative case singular in the letter "i," or "u," or a short "e," send the genitive plural into the syllable "um," the dative and ablative into "bus," as "ab hac puppi, harum puppium, his et ab his puppibus," and "ab hoc fluctu, horum fluctuum, his et ab his fluctibus," and "ab hac mente, harum mentium, his et ab his mentibus." But if a noun ends in the ablative case singular in a long "e," it sends the genitive plural into the syllable "rum," the dative and ablative into "bus," as "ab hac specie, harum specierum, his et ab his speciebus." Now it is understood whether the ablative ending in "e" ought to be lengthened, if the nominative singular is sent into "es" and the genitive into "ei," as "species speciei, res rei, spes spei," and the like.

2. 18. [9] To be sure, these rules drawn from the ablative case are not kept when sex must be distinguished; for although one says "ab hac filia," yet in the dative and ablative plural one must say "filiabus," so that they may be distinguished from the males. So too "mula mulabus, anima animabus," on account of "mulos" and "animos." In those nouns, however, that are called "adjunctive," this difference is not kept: for one must not say "iustabus" on account of "iustos," or "verabus" on account of "veros." For this reason, that when "iustus" or "verus" is said, we have to add who is called "iustus" and who is called "verus," or at any rate to leave it to be understood; whence these nouns are rightly "adjunctive" nouns.

2. 19. Likewise in certain nouns of the neuter gender that we have taken from the Greeks, and that end in the nominative singular in the syllable "a," this rule of the ablative case is not kept. For from "systema," although it makes in the ablative singular "ab hoc systemate," it is nonetheless permitted to say in the dative and ablative plural not only "his et ab his systematibus," which the rule demands, but also "systematis," which is permitted by authority rather than by reason. And authority in the Latin language has the greatest, indeed almost the sole, mastery. Wherefore in all things—both those we have said above and those that are to be said hereafter—we ought to be mindful of authority far more than of this, as it were, reason through which grammar received its name. For authority itself is more certain than the reasoning in grammar; whence it is understood that when we speak we must serve not reason but authority.

3. 1. [10] A pronoun is a part of speech which, set in place of the noun itself, signifies the same thing, though indeed less well.
To the pronoun belong things that it is now proper to consider: quality, gender, number, figure, person, case.

3. 2. In quality it is attended to whether the pronoun is definite or indefinite. It is understood to be definite if an answer can be given through it; but through an indefinite one a question only can be asked. Examples of definite pronouns are "hic, iste, ille, ipse, ego," and the like. Of indefinite ones, as "quis." There are some that are sometimes indefinite, sometimes definite, as "qui, quantus, qualis"; for when a question is made through these, they are indefinite, but otherwise definite. These some have called "less than definite." But according to this distinction, if you attend more carefully, there is one pronoun that is indefinite—and that only in the nominative case singular and the masculine gender—namely "quisnam"; and the other cases and genders of this pronoun, of either number, and all the remaining pronouns, are partly definite, because through them only an answer can be given; partly less than definite, because they serve both for asking and for answering. And so some have wished those to be "less than definite" pronouns which do not point out a thing present, but one either absent or set farther off, such as "is, ipse, ille." But those that show a thing so present that it is, as it were, pointed at with the finger, they have named "definite," such as "ego, tu, hic, iste"; the rest "indefinite," that is, all through which an inquiry can be made, as are these: "quis, qui, quantus, qualis."

3. 3. [11] Gender and number, figure and case, are observed in pronouns in the same way as in nouns. But persons, which nouns lack, are three in pronouns: first, second, third. The first is the one who speaks, the second the one to whom it is spoken, the third the one of whom it is spoken, as "ego, tu, ille." To be sure, certain pronouns are called "possessive," through which it is wont to be asked or shown what belongs to whom; but when it is asked, they are indefinite; when it is shown, they are definite. And to be sure, when each one's nation is inquired after or shown by a pronoun, it is called a "gentile" pronoun. Examples of indefinite ones are "cuius, cuia, cuium"; of definite ones, "meus, tuus, noster, vester"; the gentile indefinite, "cuias"; the gentile definite, "nostras."

3. 4. Now pronouns are declined in this way, so that we omit the vocative case, in place of which the careless and negligent always put the letter "o." For the pronoun of the first person, and most others, cannot have a vocative case; and those that do have one do not all want only "o," but also the utterance of the pronoun itself, as is "o noster" (O our one). [12] So, then, in the declensions themselves what I say will appear.

3. 5. "Ego," a definite pronoun, of the first person, the simple figure, the singular number, of every gender, which will be declined thus: "ego, mei, mihi, me, a me"; and in the plural "nos, nostri, nobis, nos, a nobis."

3. 6. "Tu," a definite pronoun, of the second person, of every gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: "tu, tui, tibi, te, tu, a te"; and in the plural "vos, vestri, vobis, vos, o vos, a vobis." This pronoun some, considering more carefully, have understood not to have a nominative but to begin from the vocative.

3. 7. "Hic," a definite pronoun, of the third person, the masculine gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative case, which will be declined thus: "hic, huius, huic, hunc, ab hoc"; and in the plural "hi, horum, his, hos, ab his." In the feminine gender, "haec, huius, huic, hanc, ab hac"; and in the plural "hae, harum, his, has, ab his." In the neuter gender, "hoc, huius, huic, hoc, ab hoc"; and in the plural "haec, horum, his, haec, ab his."

3. 8. "Is," a less-than-definite pronoun, of the third person, the masculine gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative case, which will be declined thus: "is, eius, ei, eum, ab eo"; and in the plural "ei vel ii, eorum, eis, eos, ab eis." In the feminine gender, "ea, eius, ei, eam, ab ea"; and in the plural "eae, earum, eis, eas, ab eis." In the neuter gender, "id, eius, ei, id, ab eo"; and in the plural "ea, eorum, eis, ea, ab eis."

3. 9. [13] "Iste," a definite pronoun, of the third person, the masculine gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative case, which will be declined thus: "iste, istius, isti, istum, ab isto"; and in the plural "isti, istorum, istis, istos, ab istis." In the feminine gender, "ista, istius, isti, istam, ab ista"; and in the plural "istae, istarum, istis, istas, ab istis." In the neuter gender, "istuc vel istud, istius, isti, istuc vel istud, ab isto"; and in the plural "ista, istorum, istis, istas, ab istis."

3. 10. "Ille," a less-than-definite pronoun, is declined in the rest just as the foregoing, except that its neuter does not make "illuc," in the way that the foregoing makes "istuc," but only "illud," like "istud."

3. 11. "Ipse," a less-than-definite pronoun, which is declined just as the two foregoing, except that its neuter makes not "ipsud" but "ipsum."

3. 12. "Se," a less-than-definite pronoun, of the third person, of every gender, of either number, the simple figure, the accusative case; for it has been carefully observed that the declension of this pronoun begins from the accusative, just as that of the second person, which is "tu," begins from the vocative. But if anyone, because it lacks a nominative, should think it must begin from the genitive, there is nothing to gainsay. So, then, it is declined from the genitive "sui, sibi, se, a se," and in the plural in the same way.

3. 13. [14] "Quis," an indefinite pronoun, of an indefinite person (for it can be fitted to anyone), the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative case, which will be declined thus: "quis, cuius, cui, quem, a quo vel a qui"; and in the plural "qui, quorum, quibus, quos, a quibus." In the feminine gender, "quae, cuius, cui, quam, a qua"; and in the plural "quae, quarum, quibus, quas, a quibus." In the neuter gender, "quod vel quid, cuius, cui, quod, a quo"; and in the plural "quae, quorum, quibus, quae, a quibus." To be sure, "quod," when we ask a question, governs the nominative or accusative case of the noun; "quid" the genitive: for we say "quod aurum est" (what gold there is) or "quod aurum abstulisti" (what gold you took away); we do not say "quid aurum" but "quid auri" (what of gold).

3. 14. "Quid," an indefinite pronoun, of an indefinite person, of either number, is declined in the rest just as "quis."

3. 15. Now further, "quantus, quanta, quantum," indefinite pronouns, of an indefinite person, are declined just as similar nouns, that is, "iustus, iusta, iustum." In this same way also "tantus, tanta, tantum," which are definite pronouns.

3. 16. So too there are other indefinite ones, "quotus, quota, quotum," and their definite ones "totus, tota, totum"—which six pronouns are of order. [15] Of either number, the indefinite "quod" and the definite "tot" are of the plural number only and are not bent through the cases.

3. 17. "Qualis," an indefinite pronoun, and its definite one, "talis," are of the masculine and feminine gender, and are declined just like similar ones, as "agilis" or "facilis." But their neuter, that is, "quale" or "tale," just like "agile" or "facile."

3. 18. "Cuius," an indefinite pronoun, of an indefinite person, possessive, as when we say "cuius servus est" (whose slave he is). Of the simple figure, the masculine gender, the singular number, which will be declined thus: "cuius, cui, cuio, cuium, a cuio"; and in the plural "cui, cuiorum, cuiis, cuios, a cuiis." But this declension bears more of art than of decency, for it is too old and rejected by our usage. So too in the feminine gender "cuia" is declined like "tabula," "cuium" like "lignum." But these too, although they are found in those authors who are in everyone's hands and mouth, usage has nonetheless scorned; for by one pronoun, namely "cuius" or "quorum," all the indefinite possessives are signified. For we say "cuius" or "quorum servus" (whose slave), or "ancilla" (maidservant), or "templum" (temple). But—what must be admitted—there is some trouble in distinguishing the ambiguity in the genitive singular, when we say "cuius," and in the plural, when "quorum"; for "cuius" and "quorum," when they are possessive, are not bent through the cases.

3. 19. [16] "Meus," a definite pronoun of the first person, possessive, of the masculine gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: "meus, mei, meo, meum, meus, a meo"; and in the plural "mei, meorum, meis, meos, mei, a meis." According to the rule of a similar noun, as if "reus" were declined; so in the feminine gender "mea," like "rea"; in the neuter "meum," like "reum."

3. 20. "Noster," a definite pronoun of the first person, possessive, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative and vocative case, is declined just like the similar noun, which is "niger"; and in the other genders "nostra, nostrum," like "nigra, nigrum."

3. 21. "Tuus, tua, tuum," definite pronouns of the second person, are declined in the rest just like "meus, mea, meum."

3. 22. Likewise "suus, sua, suum," definite possessive pronouns of the third person, are declined just like "tuus, tua, tuum."

3. 23. "Vester, vestra, vestrum," definite possessive pronouns of the second person, are declined just like "noster, nostra, nostrum."

3. 24. [17] "Cuias," an indefinite pronoun, of an indefinite person, possessive, gentile, of every gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative case, which will be declined thus: "cuias, cuiatis, cuiati, cuiatem et cuias," in the neuter "a cuiate"; and in the plural "cuiates et cuiatia, cuiatium, cuiatibus, cuiates et cuiatia, a cuiatibus." Now when we ask "cuias est" (of what country he is), we ask of what nation this man or woman or grain is; and "cuiatis hominis vel mulieris vel frumenti pretium aestimasti" (the price of a man or woman or grain of what country did you reckon); by a like reasoning the other cases are to be understood.

3. 25. "Nostras," a definite pronoun of the first person, possessive, gentile, of every gender, the singular number, the simple figure, the nominative and vocative case, which will be declined thus: "hic et haec et hoc nostras, huius nostratis, huic nostrati, hunc et hanc nostratem, et hoc nostras, o nostras, ab hoc et ab hac et ab hoc nostrate"; and in the plural "hi et hae nostrates et haec nostratia, horum et harum et horum nostratium, his nostratibus, hos et has nostrates et haec nostratia, o nostrates et nostratia, ab his nostratibus." By this reasoning is made "vestras, vestratis, vestrati," and the rest, which pronoun is of the second person; but of this one we do not have authors, in whose books it may be found, of such weight that through him we could resist the usage of the unskilled: for of the two foregoing Cicero himself is the author.

4. 1. [18] A verb is a part of speech with tense and person, without case. To the verb belong genus (voice), number, figure, person, mood, tense, conjugation, form.

4. 2. The genus (voice) in verbs is considered not by sex but by the prevailing custom of the grammarians: the "genus" of a verb is said to be signified as either active or passive or deponent or neuter or common. They call "active" what ends in the letter "o" and, with the letter "r" taken on, makes a passive, as "scribo"; "scribor," then, is the passive. "Deponent" is what ends in the letter "r," with which put off it is not Latin, nor can it fill the force of active and passive, as is "luctor." "Neuter" is what ends in the letter "o," and if it takes "r" it is not Latin, as is "fulgeo." "Common" is what ends in the letter "r" and has the force of active and passive, as is "criminor"; for we say "criminor illum" (I charge him), "criminor ab illo" (I am charged by him), just as "scribo illum" and "scribor ab illo." There are other verbs that end in none of the mentioned syllables but are reckoned among the neuters, as "odi, novi, memini"; likewise "sum, prosum, possum."

4. 3. The singular number of verbs is, as "scribo"; the plural, as "scribimus."

4. 4. The simple figure, as "scribo"; the compound, as "describo."

4. 5. [19] The first person, as "scribo"; the second, as "scribis"; the third, as "scribit." There are also verbs that are called "impersonal," which have remained, as it were, in the third persons. Of these, some are drawn from personal verbs, as "scribitur, legitur, curritur." Others have their own kind, as "pudet, taedet, poenitet, libet": for "pudeo," or "pudeor," or "pudes," or "puderis," and the like, is not Latin. But when they are declined, they must be run through with the persons of the pronouns added, as "curritur a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis; currebatur a me, a te, ab illo, a nobis, a vobis, ab illis," and so on. Likewise "pudet me, te, illum, nos, vos, illos," and the like.

4. 6. [20] The moods of verbs are reckoned by some as more, by some as fewer, with the rule of declining nonetheless preserved; those please us who have noted fewer, that is, indicative, imperative, conjunctive, optative, infinitive. The indicative is that by which we affirm something, as "scribo, scribebam, scripsi, scripseram, scribam." The imperative, by which we compel that something be done, as "scribe, scribite." The conjunctive, before which "cum" is placed, and which, when uttered, the sense still hangs and something remains to be joined, as is "cum scriberem." The optative, by which we wish, as "utinam scribam." The infinitive, which is fixed neither in numbers nor in persons, and sometimes not even in tense, as "scribere, scripsisse."

4. 7. [21] The tenses of verbs are three: present, as "scribo"; past, as "scripsi"; future, as "scribam."

4. 8. The conjugations are three, first, second, third. The first is the one that, in the indicative mood, in the present tense, the singular number, the second person, has "a" before the last letter; but in passives, before the last syllable, as "clamas, clamaris, vocas, vocaris." The second is the one that, in the said mood and tense, number, and person, has a long "e" before the last letter; but in passives before the syllable, as "mones, moneris, doces, doceris." The third is the one that in the same place of the active has a short "i"; but in passives a short "e" before the last syllable, as "scribis, scriberis, legis, legeris." There is what is called the "third lengthened," which some, more distinctly, call the fourth; this has, in the same places, a long "i," as "audis, audiris, nutris, nutriris." It can easily be told apart by noting the imperative mood; for when a verb is of this fourth conjugation, the imperative mood ends in "i," as "audi, nutri." Now the future tense of the indicative mood: the first and second conjugation send it into the syllable "bo"; the third shortened into "am"; the third lengthened, or fourth, if it be so called, into both "am" and "bo." For we say in the first "clamabo, vocabo"; in the second "movebo, docebo"; in the third "scribam, legam"; in the fourth both "audiam" and "audibo," and both "nutriam" and "nutribo." Which syllable in passives is changed into "bor" and "ar," as "clamabor, monebor, scribar, audiar et audibor."

4. 9. [22] The forms of verbs are four: the first is the perfect, from which the other three are derived. For "calesco" is inchoative, whose perfect is "caleo." "Parturio" is meditative, whose perfect is "pario." "Cursito" is frequentative, whose perfect is "curso."

4. 10. Now verbs are declined in this way: "scribo," an active verb, of the present tense, the first person, the third conjugation, which will be declined thus: in the indicative mood, the present tense, the singular number, through all the persons: "scribo, scribis, scribit"; and in the plural "scribimus, scribitis, scribunt." In the same mood, the past tense, the imperfect species: "scribebam, scribebas, scribebat, scribebamus, scribebatis, scribebant." In the same mood, the same tense, the perfect species: "scripsi, scripsisti, scripsit, scripsimus, scripsistis, scripserunt vel scripsere." In the same mood, the same tense, the pluperfect species: "scripseram, scripseras, scripserat, scripseramus, scripseratis, scripserant." In the same mood, the future tense: "scribam, scribes, scribet, scribemus, scribetis, scribent."

4. 11. In the imperative mood, the present tense, from the second and third person only—for it is denied that it has a first—"scribe, scribat, scribite, scribant." There are those who add the first persons too, in the singular number "scribam," in the plural "scribamus"; there are those who do not add it in the singular but add it in the plural. In the same mood, the future tense, in the singular "scribito, scribito," in the plural "scribitote, scribunto."

4. 12. [23] In the conjunctive mood, the present tense, in the singular: "cum scribam, scribas, scribat"; in the plural "cum scribamus, scribatis, scribant." In the same mood, the past tense, the imperfect species: "cum scriberem, scriberes, scriberet, cum scriberemus, scriberetis, scriberent." In the same mood, the same tense, the perfect species: "cum scripserim, scripseris, scripserit, cum scripserimus, scripseritis, scripserint." In the same mood, the same tense, the pluperfect species: "cum scripsissem, scripsisses, scripsisset, cum scripsissemus, scripsissetis, scripsissent." In the same mood, the future tense: "cum scripsero, scripseris, scripserit, cum scripserimus, scripserint." To be sure, it should be known that in all verbs of the indicative mood "cum" can be added, and from this the verb is turned into the condition of the conjunctive.

4. 13. In the optative mood, the present tense: "utinam scriberem, scriberes, scriberet, utinam scriberemus, scriberetis, scriberent." In the same mood, the past tense, the perfect species: "utinam scripserim, scripseris, scripserit, utinam scripserimus, scripseritis, scripserint." In the same mood, the same tense, the pluperfect species: "utinam scripsissem, scripsisses, scripsisset, utinam scripsissemus, scripsissetis, scripsissent." In the same mood, the future tense: "utinam scribam, scribas, scribat, utinam scribamus, scribatis, scribant." There are those who think this mood does not have the perfect species of the past tense, because no one would wish, as it were, for what is already done; and if this were true, it ought all the more not to have the pluperfect. There are likewise those who deny that it has the imperfect, as it has been declined by us just now. But there are those who assign what we attribute to the present tense by this declension to the imperfect species of the past tense, and what we assign to the future they decline in the present tense. But since the matter is plain, it is superfluous to contend about the names.

4. 14. [24] In the infinitive mood, without numbers, tenses, and persons, "scribere"; in the past tense alone, fixed, "scripsisse"; in the future "scriptum ire." In the same mood, the fourth species, "scribendi, scribendo, scribendum, scriptum, scriptu," which I have learned is called "participial" by some.

4. 15. From the active verb come two participles, of the present tense, as "scribens," and of the future, as "scripturus."

4. 16. From the verb are made nouns that are called "verbal" (verbialia): one that is of the masculine and neuter gender, as "scriptor," and sends the feminine into "trix," as "scriptrix"; the other is of the feminine gender only, as "scriptio." These nouns are bent rather from the participle of the past tense: for from "scriptus," with the syllable "us" changed into "or," it makes "scriptor," into "io" "scriptio." But many, on account of harshness, do not make a feminine from that first kind, nor a neuter in the plural: for from "pressor" no one says "prestrix" or makes "prestricia"; yet "tonsor" makes "tonstrix"—so great is the force of authority and custom in speaking.

4. 17. [25] On the passive verb. The passive verb is declined in this way: "scribor," a passive verb, of the present tense, the first person, the third conjugation, which will be declined thus: in the indicative mood, the present tense: "scribor, scriberis, scribitur, scribimur, scribimini, scribuntur." In the same mood, the past tense and the imperfect species: "scribebar, scribebaris, scribebatur, scribebamur, scribebamini, scribebantur." In the same mood, the same tense, the perfect species: "scriptus sum, es, est, scripti sumus, estis, sunt," and the further perfect: "scriptus fui, fuisti, fuit, scripti fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt vel fuere." In the same mood, the same tense, the pluperfect species: "scriptus eram, eras, erat, scripti eramus, eratis, erant," and the further pluperfect: "scriptus fueram, fueras, fuerat, scripti fueramus, fueratis, fuerant." In the same mood, the future tense: "scribar, scriberis, scribetur, scribemur, scribemini, scribentur."

4. 18. In the imperative mood, the present tense: "scribere, scribatur, scribimini, scribantur." In the same mood, the future tense: "scribitor, scribitor, scribiminor, scribuntor."

4. 19. [26] In the conjunctive mood, the present tense: "cum scribar, scribaris, scribatur, cum scribamur, scribamini, scribantur." In the same mood, the past tense, the imperfect species: "cum scriberer, scribereris, scriberetur, cum scriberemur, scriberemini, scriberentur." In the same mood, the same tense, the perfect species: "cum scriptus sim, sis, sit, cum scripti simus, sitis, sint," and the further perfect species: "cum scriptus fuerim, fueris, fuerit, cum scripti fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint." In the same mood, the same tense, the pluperfect species: "cum scriptus essem, esses, esset, cum scripti essemus, essetis, essent," and the further pluperfect species: "cum scriptus fuissem, fuisses, fuisset, cum scripti fuissemus, fuissetis, fuissent." In the same mood, the future tense: "cum scriptus ero, eris, erit, cum scripti erimus, eritis, erunt," and the further future "cum scriptus fuero, fueris, fuerit, cum scripti fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint."

4. 20. [27] In the optative mood, the present tense: "utinam scriberer, scribereris, scriberetur, utinam scriberemur, scriberemini, scriberentur." In the same mood, the past tense, the perfect species: "utinam scriptus sim, sis, sit, utinam scripti simus, sitis, sint"; the further perfect, "utinam scriptus fuerim, fueris, fuerit, utinam scripti fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint." In the same mood, the same tense, the pluperfect species: "utinam scriptus essem, esses, esset, utinam scripti essemus, essetis, essent"; the further pluperfect, "utinam scriptus fuissem, fuisses, fuisset, utinam scripti fuissemus, fuissetis, fuissent." In the same mood, the future tense: "utinam scribar, scribaris, scribatur, utinam scribamur, scribamini, scribantur."

4. 21. In the infinitive mood, without numbers, tenses, and persons, "scribi"; in the past tense alone, fixed, "scriptum esse," the further past "scriptum fuisse," the future "scriptum iri."

4. 22. From the passive verb come participles, of the past tense as "scriptus," of the future "scribendus."

4. 23. [28] The neuter verb, which ends in "o," is declined just like the active. But the deponent and the common just like the passive—except that from the deponent verb come three participles, present, past, and future, as "luctans, luctatus, luctaturus"; but from the common four, present as "criminans," past as "criminatus," and two futures as "criminaturus, criminandus."

4. 24. Verbs that end in "i," as "odi, novi, memini," are declined in this way: "odi," a neuter verb, of the singular number, the simple figure, the present tense, the first person, of no conjugation, which will be declined thus: in the indicative mood, the present tense: "odi, odisti, odit, odimus, odistis, oderunt vel odere." In the same mood, the past tense, the imperfect species: "oderam, oderas, oderat, oderamus, oderatis, oderant"; the perfect and pluperfect species it does not have. It has a future tense, which is: "odero, oderis, oderit, oderimus, oderitis, oderint." It does not have an imperative mood. In the conjunctive mood, the present tense: "cum oderim, oderis, oderit, cum oderimus, oderitis, oderint"; the rest of the conjunctive mood it does not have. In the optative mood, the past tense: "utinam odissem, odisses, odisset, utinam odissemus, odissetis, odissent." In the same mood, the future tense: "utinam oderim, oderis, oderit, utinam oderimus, oderitis, oderint"; the rest of the optative it does not have. In the infinite mood, without numbers and persons, in the past tense alone, fixed, "odisse"; the rest it does not have, unless perhaps "osum ire" can be said. It makes one participle of the future tense, "osurus," and one of the past, "osus"; which, however, holds the force of the present, and is altogether to be reckoned present on account of the force of the neuter verb, from which a past participle does not come. And this is manifest, since when we say "osus illum sum," we say it for what is "odi illum" (I hate him): just as when we say "fulgens sum" we say nothing other than "fulgeo," or rather "scribens sum illum" we say nothing other than "scribo illum." For which reason these verbs, although they have been called neuter for this reason, that they do not make passives, yet—because they are joined to accusative cases (for we say "odi illam rem" and "novi illam rem," just as "scribo illam rem")—hold the force of the active; and I think they are altogether to be called active, and the same, after their manner, just as in many things they are deficient, so are deficient in this, that they do not make passives.

4. 25. [29] "Memini" is a similar verb and is declined similarly, except that it makes an imperative of the future tense, which is "memento," as if it made one of the past tense too, which is "meminerit"; and these imperatives themselves are declined after the manner of the foregoing verbs; and it makes one participle, which is "mementurus."

4. 26. "Novi" is a similar verb and is declined just like "odi," except that it has a present participle only, and one like the past, which is "notus," just as "osus"; but because we say both "notus est mihi" (he is known to me) and "notus sum illi" (I am known to him), whereas "osus sum illi" is denied to be sayable, it seems on this account too to be dissimilar.

4. 27. [30] Verbs that end in the syllable "um," as "sum, possum," are declined in this way: "sum," a neuter verb, of the singular number, the simple figure, the present tense, the first person, of no conjugation, which will be declined thus: in the indicative mood, the present tense: "sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt." In the same mood, the past tense, the imperfect species: "eram, eras, erat, eramus, eratis, erant." In the same mood, the same tense, the perfect species: "fui, fuisti, fuit, fuimus, fuistis, fuerunt vel fuere." In the same mood, the same tense, the pluperfect species: "fueram, fueras, fuerat, fueramus, fueratis, fuerant." In the same mood, the future tense: "ero, eris, erit, erimus, eritis, erunt."

4. 28. In the imperative mood, the present tense: "es, sit, este, sint"; in the same mood, the future tense: "esto, esto, estote, sunto."

4. 29. In the conjunctive mood, the present tense: "cum sim, sis, sit, cum simus, sitis, sint." In the same mood, the past tense, the imperfect species: "cum essem, esses, esset, cum essemus, essetis, essent." In the same mood, the same tense, the perfect species: "cum fuerim, fueris, fuerit, fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint." In the same mood, the same tense, the pluperfect species: "cum fuissem, fuisses, fuisset, cum fuissemus, fuissetis, fuissent." In the same mood, the future tense: "cum ero, eris, erit, cum erimus, eritis, erint"; in the further future "cum fuero, fueris, fuerit, cum fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint."

4. 30. In the optative mood, the present tense: "utinam essem, esses, esset, utinam essemus, essetis, essent." In the same mood, the past tense, the perfect species: "utinam fuerim, fueris, fuerit, utinam fuerimus, fueritis, fuerint." In the same mood, the same tense, the pluperfect species: "utinam fuissem, fuisses, fuisset, utinam fuissemus, fuissetis, fuissent." In the same mood, the future tense: "utinam sim, sis, sit, utinam simus, sitis, sint."

4. 31. In the infinitive mood, without numbers, tenses, and persons, "esse"; in the fixed tense alone, the past "fuisse," the future "fore." In the fourth species it is deficient, and in the participle of the present tense. But certain learned men of more recent time, when they had need of interpreting and setting forth certain great and divine things, said both "essendi" and "essendo" and "essendum" and "essens," just as "scribendi, scribendo, scribendum, scribens."

4. 32. [31] "Possum" is a similar verb, declined in the same way, but about the second person of the imperative there is doubt; and as for the fact that those verbs are deficient in the fourth species, no one has arisen who would innovate even in this verb. But among the participles "potens" seems to be the present participle of this verb, yet it is more rightly understood to be a noun; for from "sum" there is a participle of the future tense, when we say "futurum."

4. 33. To be sure, once the conjugation is found, verbs are more easily declined—except the perfect and pluperfect species of the past tense, and the future tense of the conjunctive mood, and the past and future of the infinitive, and the participles, the future from the active and from the neuter, and every past. For which reason there are, in the declension of verbs, three connections (connexiones), each of which holds several verbs so connected to itself that, if one of them be found, the rest are found most easily.

4. 34. Of these connections the first is said to be from the conjugation, which on this account is artificial; the other two are from authority or approved custom. [32] For, the custom of a verb being found, these verbs are found at once, as in the first conjugation: "clamo, clamabam, clamabo, clama, clamato, clamem, clamarem, clamare, clamandi, clamando, clamandum," and the participles "clamans, clamandus"; if one of these be found, it cannot but be the first conjugation, and so are declined all these verbs and participles that we have mentioned in all those of the first conjugation. Of the second conjugation these belong to the first connection: "moneo, monebam, monebo, mone" (with a long "e"), "moneto, moneam, monerem, monere, monendi, monendo, monendum," and the participles "monens" and "monendus"; but these last five and the imperfect species of the indicative are common to the second and third conjugation. Of the third conjugation, then, these belong to the same connection: "scribo, scribebam, scribam, scribe" (but with a short "e"), "scribito, scribam, scriberem, scribere, scribendi, scribendo, scribendum," and the participles "scribens, scribendus." Of the fourth conjugation these belong to the same connection: "audio, audiebam, audibo vel audiam, audi, audito, audiam, audirem, audire, audiendi, audiendo, audiendum," and the participles "audiens" and "audiendus." But those verbs that in the fourth conjugation have "e" before "o," such as "eo" and "ineo," are somewhat different; and so these are in this way: "ineo, inibam, ineundi, ineundo, ineundum," and the participle "ineundus"; the rest are similar to the foregoing declension.

4. 35. The second is the one that takes its start from the past perfect of the indicative mood, whose verbs are these: "clamavi, clamaveram, clamaverim, clamavissem, clamavisse"; "monui, monueram, monuerim, monuissem, monuisse"; "scripsi, scripseram, scripserim, scripsissem, scripsisse"; "audivi, audiveram, audiverim, audivissem, audivisse," or "audii, audieram, audierim, audissem, audisse." For these syllables "va, ve, vi, vo, vu" sound rather thick, and for the pleasantness of the ears are wont to be withdrawn, either wholly, as when we say "clamaram" not "clamaveram," or, with the "v" alone taken away, to be thinned out, as is what was said, "audieram" for "audiveram."

4. 36. The third connection, from which the other things are derived, takes its start from the infinitive of the fourth species, which is the last in the declension. To this connection belong this one verb-form and the participle of the future from the active and of the past, and the verbal nouns, which are these: "clamatum, clamatus, clamaturus, clamator, clamatio"; "monitum, monitus, moniturus, monitor, monitio"; "scriptum, scriptus, scripturus, scriptor, scriptio"; "auditum, auditus, auditurus, auditor, auditio."

4. 37. These three connections have this force, that if you have found one verb of any connection, you may easily run through the rest belonging to the same connection in their moods, numbers, and persons; for if you should wish to lead the verbs of one connection into another connection and rule, you must needs be deceived.

5. 1. [34] An adverb is a part of speech to be added to the verb, as when we say "fortiter fecit" (he acted bravely), "mansuete vixit" (he lived gently), "hodie venit" (he came today), "loco est" (he is in place), "longe est" (he is far off), "hic sedet" (he sits here), "simul comitatur" (he accompanies at the same time), and others; for "fecit, vixit, venit, sedet, comitatur" are verbs; "fortiter, mansuete, hodie, hic, simul" are adverbs. To the adverb belong signification, comparison, figure.

5. 2. The signification by which they signify either quality, as "sapienter, candide"; or quantity, as "magne, granditer"; or time, as "hodie, cras"; or place, as "hic, ibi"; and others almost innumerable. Some add to adverbs quality as well, and rightly. For these, like pronouns, are either definite adverbs, or indefinite, or less than definite: definite are "fortiter, hodie, Romane"; indefinite, as "quomodo, quando, ubi"; less than definite, as "sic, tunc, illic."

5. 3. Comparison belongs to those adverbs that come from nouns receiving comparison, as from "fortis" "fortiter"; therefore, just as "fortis, fortior, fortissimus," so "fortiter, fortius, fortissime"; and just as "castus, castior, castissimus," so "caste, castius, castissime." And so the comparative is of the noun's neuter gender; for "sanctius templum" is a noun, "sanctius dixit" an adverb. In these this is to be observed: that whatever nouns send the dative case into "i," from them adverbs end in "ter," as "huic forti" "fortiter," "sapienti" "sapienter," "agili" "agiliter"; but whatever send the dative case into "o," from them adverbs end in "e," as "huic magno" "magne," "casto" "caste," "docto" "docte."

5. 4. The figure of adverbs, as of nouns and verbs, is either simple, as "sapienter," or compound, as "insipienter."

6. 1. [35] A participle is a part of speech with case and tense, and from this it is called "participle," because it shares (participet) in the noun and the verb; for it drew its case from the one, its tense from the other. Now there are two participles of the future tense, one of the present, one of the past. Of the future tense, as "scripturus, scribendus"; of the present, as "scribens"; of the past, as "scriptus." Now "scribens" is declined just like the noun "prudens," for it is of every gender; but the remaining three are bent through all genders, just like "iustus, iusta, iustum"—in the same way they are declined.

6. 2. There are certain things that are both participles and nouns, as "cultus, sapiens," by a different reasoning. For "cultus" is distinguished by the genitive case: as a participle it makes "huius culti," and comes from the verb of venerating, "colo, colis, colitur"; but as a noun it makes "huius cultus." And "sapiens" is also called a noun for this reason, that it receives comparison: for it makes "sapiens, sapientior, sapientissimus." But this reasoning does not much please me; for participles seem to receive comparison, if the custom of speaking permits or authority urges it—but only of the past tense, for the two futures do not admit it. For who does not dare to say "armatissimus," which Cicero says? And yet "armaturior" or "armandior" cannot be said from "armaturus" and "armandus." And it must be admitted that, if participles are taken with their tense, they seem hardly able to receive comparison: for "cultus" too, as it has been mentioned, makes "cultior" and "cultissimus," but if you refer it to the past tense it does not; for a field is "cultus" (tilled) from its very condition, but it is "cultus" (cultivated), if you attend to the tense, by the past action of a tiller. To participles too belong figures, as to the other parts of speech: simple, as "scribens," compound, as "describens."

7. 1. [36] A conjunction is a part of speech binding together and ordering the sentence. To the conjunction belongs force—either that which couples words, as "et, que, ac"; or disjoins, as "aut, vel, nec, neque"; or fills out, as "prorsus, videlicet, scilicet, quin, etiam," and the like; or, as it were, renders a cause, as "nam, namque, enim, quamobrem, itaque"; or, as it were, reasons, as "ergo, igitur, propterea," and the like. And therefore some are called copulative, some disjunctive, some expletive, some causal, some rational.

7. 2. But there are very many conjunctions about which the grammarians deliberate carefully, by which of these five names to call them, or whether other distinctions are to be added. Because this dispute is both long and hard to settle, let this brief precept about conjunctions suffice: that when we read men most worthy in the authority of expression, we should also notice in what place and in what sentence they are wont to be set, so that, by the custom of understanding, we may be able to use conjunctions well. For if anyone should ask what "immo" is, I could not easily say how we might either define or interpret this conjunction to him. So by bringing forward many sentences in which it is set, we convey in a certain wondrous way what it avails, with a certain gesture of delivery too—as is immo ait o cives arrepto tempore Turnus / cogite concilium (nay rather, says Turnus, O citizens, seizing the moment, gather the council), and immo age et a prima dic hospes origine nobis (nay rather, come, stranger, tell us from the first beginning); and it is useful to add our own sentences, made up for the occasion: "immo tu vade qui cogis alium" (nay rather, you go, who compel another); "immo adeo rationi qui detrahere studes" (nay rather, indeed, you who are eager to detract from reason). And to this conjunction it is in some way close when we say "potius" and "adeo"; and one must return, as I said, to the books.

7. 3. Figures in conjunctions are observed as in the other parts of speech, for a conjunction is either simple or compound.

7. 4. And the order of conjunctions is that by which is observed which can only be placed before, which only subjoined, which both placed before and subjoined: for "que" is only subjoined, "scilicet" both placed before and subjoined. For if anyone should ask, for example, "to whom do you speak?", we answer "huic et tibi" (to this one and to you), we cannot say "huic tibi"; and likewise we answer "huic tibique," it cannot be said "huicque tibi"; but we can answer "scilicet tibi" and "tibi scilicet."

8. 1. [37] A preposition is a part of speech which is either placed before parts of speech to be compounded, or before two cases only, the accusative or the ablative, or before either, not to be compounded but to help toward certain significations. And so some prepositions are only compounded, as "di, dis, re, am"; for we say "diiudico, discurro, removeo, ambio." Others only serve cases, as "apud, pone, secundum, ultra, adversum, cis, citra, circa, erga, intra, infra, iuxta, penes, propter, usque, coram, absque, palam, sine, tenus." The rest are both compounded and serve cases, as we say both "adnuam" and "adduco" and "ad amicum."

8. 2. Therefore these serve the accusative: "ad amicum, apud patrem, ante coenam, adversus hostem, cis Tiberim, circa domum, circum murum, circa ianuam, contra portam, erga fratrem, extra matrem, inter montes, intra domum, infra urbem, iuxta locum, ob rem, penes Eurum, per spatium, prope Circum, propter salutem, praeter sonum, post tergum, pone balneas, secundum viam, trans Galliam, ultra Aethiopiam, usque Romam."

8. 3. These serve the ablative case: "a socio, ab Olympo, abs tecto, absque damno, cum amico, coram vicino, de domo, e foro, ex edicto, pro patria, prae ceteris, palam omnibus, sine invidia, tenus facie."

8. 4. These serve either case: "in villam vado" (I go to the country house) and "in villa sum" (I am in the country house), "sub tectum venio" (I come under the roof) and "sub tecto sto" (I stand under the roof), "subter arborem eo" (I go beneath the tree) and "subter arbore sedeo" (I sit beneath the tree), "super arborem saliunt" (they leap over the tree) and "super arbore sidunt" (they settle upon the tree). And "super," when it signifies "de" (about), as is multa super Priamo rogitans (asking many things about Priam), serves the ablative only.

9. 1. [38] An interjection is a part of speech signifying and expressing some motion of the mind, as "heu, papae, hem," and any others there are.

10. 1. [39] A solecism is a fault of speech that occurs through parts of speech that are indeed Latin but badly knit together. For one who says "inter hominibus," if you consider the single words, has made no fault; for both "inter" is Latin and "hominibus" is; but the two thus joined are faulty. In this way, then, whenever there is an offense against any one of the rules that have been given concerning the eight parts of speech, it is called a "solecism."

10. 2. Some separate from the solecism the "improper" (improprium), which in Greek is called acyrologia: if anyone, for example, should say "libidinem amicitiarum" (the lust of friendships) for "amorem" (love), and "factionem bonorum" (the faction of goods) for "cessionem" (the cession). Unless one says it by way of censure or mockery, but thinking in good faith that it ought to be so said, it is never wont to be reprehended in such a way that he is charged with having made a solecism. This, then, is the difference between a solecism and the improper: that in a solecism ignorance of order is reprehended, but in the improper, ignorance of signification; for it is one thing not to know how words ought to follow one another, another not to know what they signify.

11. 1. [40] A barbarism is that by which the single words themselves are not Latin. For if anyone should say "ominem" (for "hominem"), with the aspiration taken away, he makes a barbarism; or "choronam" (for "coronam"), with the aspiration added, he errs; or "luctat" (for "luctatur"), with a syllable taken away, he will of course err; or "potestur" for "potest," with a syllable added, it is not Latin.

11. 2. Or if one should say "pone" and shorten the first syllable by the taking-away of quantity, it is a barbarism; or if one should say "bonus" and lengthen the first syllable, by the adding of quantity, it is a fault; or if one should utter "nomen" and accent no syllable in it, he errs by the taking-away of accent; but if he should accent two syllables in one part of speech, he offends the hearing by the adding of accent; if one should say "vulla" for "villa," by the changing of a letter; if one should say "displicina" for "disciplina," there is a fault in the transposition of a syllable. For a barbarism is made by the taking-away, the adding, the changing, and the transposing, of either the aspiration, or a letter, or a syllable, or accents, or quantities.

11. 3. But for avoiding the rest, the reading of any good author can help; for quantities and accents, however, other learning, and the poets, are most necessary; or if time excludes one from these, the speech of the learned in conversation is to be carefully noticed. For what is correct in speaking at a given time, and what those who are held to be learned of that same time either have said or have approved, are matters of the highest agreement, which most easily appears in any of their writings and in speech carefully composed.

11. 4. To be sure, some distinguish between a "barbarism" and a "barbarous word" (barbarum): so that it is a barbarism if a part of speech, according to the reasoning given, comes out faulty in some respect; but a barbarous word if it is some nation's word, not received—as if anyone should say in Latin speech "delecs" for "caries" (decay), which is of course Punic. But that there is no word at all of any nation reported in place of a word—to such a fault no name has been given.
[Verbs of the genitive case:] "obliviscor iniuriae" (I forget the injury), "memor sum bonorum" (I am mindful of good things), "misereor puerorum" (I pity the boys), "pudet facti" (I am ashamed of the deed), "piget gratiae" (I am irked at the favor), "poenitet laboris" (I repent of the toil), "taedet operis" (I am weary of the work), "memini lectionis" (I remember the reading), "reminiscor doloris" (I recall the grief), "ignarus malorum" (ignorant of evils). Verbs of the accusative case: "decet dominum" (it becomes the master), "poenitet amicum" (it repents the friend), "piget inertem" (it irks the sluggard), "ridet fratrem" (he laughs at the brother), "calumniatur Catonem" (he slanders Cato), "concedo pretium" (I grant the price), "lego Homerum" (I read Homer), "scribo historiam" (I write a history), "consolor inimicum" (I console the enemy), "odi turpes" (I hate the base), "novi bonos" (I know the good). Common nouns [of the genitive]: "expers bonorum" (without share of goods), "dubius itineris" (uncertain of the journey), "cupidus honoris" (desirous of honor), "neglegens picturae" (careless of the painting), "conscius facti" (aware of the deed). These serve the dative case: "maledico hosti" (I curse the enemy), "suadeo iudicibus" (I advise the judges), "indico tibi" (I declare to you), "cedo potenti" (I yield to the powerful), "ministro parenti" (I serve the parent), "largior amico" (I bestow on the friend), "dono propinquo" (I give to the kinsman), "obsequor domino" (I comply with the master), "adversor inimico" (I oppose the enemy), "gratificor illis" (I gratify them), "subscribo epistulis" (I subscribe to the letters), "adsum clementi" (I stand by the merciful one), "pareo legibus" (I obey the laws). Nouns of the vocative case: "Virgili scribe" (Virgil, write), "Cicero responde" (Cicero, answer). Verbs of the ablative case: "fruor fratre" (I enjoy my brother), "potior pecunia" (I gain the money), "utor toga" (I use the toga), "privor potestate" (I am deprived of power), "egeo laude" (I lack praise), "careo molestia" (I am free of trouble), "cedo possessione" (I withdraw from the possession), "abstineo cibo" (I abstain from food), "fungor officiis" (I discharge my duties), "sacrifico victima" (I sacrifice with a victim), "glorior viribus" (I glory in my strength), "donatus torque" (presented with a collar), "dignatus honore" (deemed worthy of honor). Nouns of the dative case: "intentus studiis" (intent on his studies), "inimicus virtuti" (hostile to virtue), "audiens dicto" (obedient to command), "invidens bono" (envying the good), "malivolus studenti" (ill-disposed to the student), "utilis civibus" (useful to the citizens), "aptus scenae" (fit for the stage).
HERE ENDS THE ART OF SAINT AUGUSTINE.