On the Soul

Thomas Aquinas · Aristotle Commentaries
Sententia libri De anima
Commentary on Aristotle’s On the Soul
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Bk. 1Opinions about the SoulDe dignitate, utilitate ac difficultate eius scientiae; veterum opiniones expenduntur; de unitate animae
L. 1 (Α.1, 402a1–403a2)The dignity, utility, order, and difficulty of this science
Dignitatem, utilitatem, ordinem, ac difficultatem huius scientiae ad alias ostendit
The dignity, utility, order, and difficulty of this science
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Bonorum et honorabilium notitiam opinantes, magis autem alteram altera aut secundum certitudinem aut ex eo quod meliorum quidem et mirabiliorum est, propter utraque haec animae historiam rationabiliter utique in primis ponemus.
Holding as we do that knowledge is of good and honorable things, yet that some kinds of knowledge are more so than others, either because they are more certain or because they are about better and more wonderful things, with good reason we give a primary place, for both these reasons, to an inquiry about the soul.
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Videtur autem et ad veritatem omnem cognitio ipsius multum proficere, maxime autem ad naturam. Est enim tanquam principium animalium.
Indeed, knowledge of the soul would seem to help greatly in acquiring all truth, especially about the natural world; for it is, as it were, the principle of living things.
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Inquirimus autem considerare et cognoscere naturamque ipsius et substantiam, postea quaecumque accidunt circa ipsam, quorum aliae proprie passiones videntur, aliae autem propter ipsam communes et animalibus inesse.
We seek, then, to consider and know, first, its nature and substance, then whatever qualities belong to it. Of these latter, some seem to be proper passions of the soul alone, others to be shared in common and to exist in living beings on account of it.
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Omnino autem et penitus difficillimorum est accipere aliquam fidem de ipsa. Cum enim sit communis quaestio multis aliis, dico autem ea quae circa substantiam et ea quae quid est, fortassis alicui videbitur una quaedam methodus esse de omnibus de quibus volumus cognoscere substantiam, sicut et eorum quae secundum accidens propriorum demonstrationem. Quare quaerendum utique erit methodum istam.
To ascertain, however, anything reliable about it is one of the most difficult of undertakings. For, such a question being common to many other things—I mean, an inquiry into the substance, and what each thing is—it might seem to some that one definite procedure were available for all things of which we wished to know the substance, as there is demonstration for the accidental properties of things. So we should have to discover what is this one method.
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Si autem non est una quaedam et communis methodus de eo quod quid est, amplius difficilius fit negotiari. Oportebit enim accipere circa unumquodque quis modus, cum manifestum fuerit utrum demonstratio aliqua sit, aut divisio, aut etiam aliqua alia methodus. Adhuc multas habet dubitationes et errores, ex quibus oportet quaerere; alia enim aliorum principia, sicut numerorum et planorum.
But if there is no one method for determining what a thing is, our inquiry becomes decidedly more difficult, for we shall have to find what procedure belongs to each case; for then it would be clear whether it is a certain demonstration, or a division, or even some other procedure. And there are still many puzzles and uncertainties for which answers must be found. For there are different principles for different things, for instance, in the case of numbers and surfaces.
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Primum autem fortassis necessarium est dividere in quo generum et quid sit, dico autem utrum hoc aliquid et substantia sit, aut qualitas, aut quantitas, aut etiam quoddam aliud divisorum praedicamentorum.
Perhaps the first thing needed is to divide off the genus of the subject and to say what it is—I mean, whether it be a particular thing and substance, or a quality, or a quantity, or any other of the different categories.
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Adhuc autem utrum eorum quae in potentia sunt, an magis endelichia quaedam sit; differt enim non aliquid parvum. Considerandum autem et si partibilis sit, aut inpartibilis, et utrum sit similis speciei omnis anima an non? Si autem non similis speciei, utrum specie differant aut genere?
Further, whether it is among things in potency or is an actuality—no small distinction. Again, whether it is divisible or indivisible, and whether every soul is like in species or not, and if not, whether they differ specifically or generically.
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Nunc quidem enim dicentes et quaerentes de anima, de humana solum videntur intendere. Formidandum autem quatinus non lateat utrum una ratio ipsius est, sicut animalis, aut secundum unumquodque altera, ut equi, canis, hominis deique, animal autem universale aut nihil est aut posterius. Similiter autem et si aliquod commune aliud praedicetur.
For those who at present talk of and discuss the soul seem to deal only with the human soul. One must be careful not to leave unexplored the question whether there is a single account of it, as there is of “animal,” or a different one for each one—for example, for horse, dog, man, or god. Now, “animal” as a universal is nothing, or is something secondary. And we must say the same of any other common predicate.
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Amplius autem si non multae animae, sed partes, utrum oportet quaerere prius totam animam aut partes. Difficile autem est1 harum determinare quales aptae natae sint alterae ab invicem esse, et utrum partes oportet quaerere prius aut opera ipsarum, ut intelligere aut intellectivum, et sentire aut sensitivum. Similiter autem et in aliis.
Further, if there are not many souls, but only many parts, we must ask whether one ought to look first at the whole soul or its parts. It is difficult to determine what sorts are by nature diverse from one another, and whether one ought to look first at the parts or their activities—for instance, at understanding or at the intellectual power, at sensing or at the sensitive power; and likewise in other instances.
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Si autem opera prius, iterum utique dubitabit aliquis si obiecta horum prius quaerendum, sicut sensibile sensitivo et intelligibile intellectivo.
But if one is to examine first the activities, it might be asked whether one should not first inquire about their objects, for instance, the sensible thing before the sensitive power, and the intelligible thing before the intellectual power.
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Videtur autem non solum quod quid est cognoscere utile esse ad cognoscendum causas accidentium substantiis, sicut in mathematicis quid rectum et quid obliquum et quid linea et planum ad cognoscendum quot rectis trianguli anguli sunt aequales. Sed e converso accidentia conferunt magnam partem ad cognoscendum quod quid est. Cum enim habeamus tradere secundum phantasiam de accidentibus aut omnibus aut pluribus, tunc et de substantia habebimus aliquid dicere optime. Omnis enim demonstrationis principium est quod quid est. Quare secundum quascumque diffinitiones non contingit accidentia cognoscere, sed neque imaginari de ipsis facile, manifestum quod dialecticae dictae sunt et vanae omnes.
Now, it seems that not only does knowing the substance help one to know the causes of the accidents of substances, as in mathematics, knowing what the straight is and what the curved is, and what a line is and what a plane is helps one know how many right angles equal the angles of a triangle. But, conversely, accidental qualities contribute much to knowing what a thing is. For when we can give an account of such accidents (either some or all) according to appearances, then we shall best have something to say about the substance. For the principle of every demonstration is what a thing is. Hence, whatsoever definitions do not afford us a knowledge of accidents, or even a fair conjecture about them, are obviously all said dialectically and are empty.
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1. Bonorum et honorabilium, etc. Sicut Philosophus docet in XI De animalibus, in quolibet genere rerum necesse est prius considerare communia, [et seorsum] et postea propria unicuique illius generis (quem quidem modum Aristoteles servat in philosophia prima: in Metaphysicae enim primo tractat et considerat communia entis in quantum ens, postea vero considerat propria unicuique enti), cuius ratio est, quia nisi hoc fieret, idem diceretur frequenter. Rerum autem animatarum omnium quoddam genus est et ideo in consideratione rerum animatarum oportet primo considerare ea quae sunt communia omnibus animatis, postmodum vero illa quae propria sunt cuilibet rei animatae. Commune autem omnibus rebus animatis est anima; in hoc enim omnia animata conveniunt. Ad tradendum igitur scientiam de rebus animatis, necessarium fuit primo tradere scientiam de anima tamquam communem eis. Aristoteles ergo volens tradere scientiam de ipsis rebus animatis, primo tradit scientiam de anima, postmodum vero determinat de propriis singulis animatis in sequentibus libris.
1. Holding as we do that knowledge (402a1). In studying any genus of things, it is first of all necessary, as the Philosopher says in Parts of Animals, to consider separately what is common, and afterwards what is proper to each member of the genus.1 Such is Aristotle’s method in first philosophy; for at the beginning of the Metaphysics, he investigates and contemplates things common to being as being, and only then does he go on to things proper to each being. The reason for this procedure is that it saves frequent repetition. Now, there is a certain genus of all things that are ensouled; hence, in contemplating them, the first thing one must do is consider what ensouled things have in common, and afterwards what each has peculiar to itself. What they have in common is a soul; in this they are all alike. Therefore, in conveying knowledge about ensouled things, one must first convey it about the soul as that which is common to them all. Thus, when Aristotle sets out to treat of ensouled things, he begins with the soul; after which, in subsequent books, he determines the properties of particular ensouled beings.
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2. In tractatu autem de anima quem habemus prae manibus, primo ponit prooemium, in quo facit tria quae necessaria sunt in quolibet prooemio. Qui enim facit prooemium tria intendit: primo enim ut reddat benevolum, secundo ut reddat docilem, tertio ut reddat attentum;
2. In the treatise that we are holding in our hands about the soul, we find, first, an introduction: in this, the author does the three things that should be done in any introduction.1 For in writing an introduction one has three objects in view: first, to gain the reader’s good will; second, to dispose him to learn; third, to win his attention.
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benevolum quidem reddit ostendendo utilitatem scientiae; docilem, promittendo ordinem et distinctionem tractatus; attentum, attestando difficultatem tractatus. Quae quidem tria Aristoteles facit in prooemio huius tractatus:
The first object one achieves by showing the reader the value of the knowledge in question; the second, by explaining the plan and divisions of the treatise; the third, by warning him of its difficulties. And all this Aristotle does here.
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primo enim ostendit dignitatem huius scientiae;
First, he points out the high value of the science he is introducing.
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secundo vero ordinem huius tractatus, quid sit scilicet et qualiter sit tractandum de anima, ibi: inquirimus autem;
Second, at we seek, then (402a7; [8]), he explains the plan of the treatise.
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tertio vero ostendit difficultatem huius scientiae, ibi: omnino autem et penitus difficillimorum etc.
Third, at to ascertain, however, anything reliable (402a10; [9]), he warns of its difficulty.
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Circa primum duo facit:
Under the first point, he explains:
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primo enim ostendit dignitatem huius scientiae;
first, the dignity of this science;
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secundo utilitatem eius, ibi: videtur autem et ad veritatem etc.
and then, at indeed, knowledge (402a4; [7]), its utility.
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3. Circa primum sciendum est quod omnis scientia bona est, et non solum bona, verum etiam honorabilis, nihilominus tamen in hoc una scientia superexcedit aliam. Quod autem omnis scientia sit bona, patet, quia bonum rei est illud secundum quod res habet esse perfectum, hoc enim unaquaeque res quaerit et desiderat; cum igitur scientia sit perfectio hominis in quantum homo, scientia est bonum hominis.
3. As regards, then, the said dignity, we should note that, while all knowledge is good and even honorable, one science can surpass another in this respect. All knowledge is obviously good because the good of anything is that according to which the thing has perfect being, which all things seek after and desire; therefore, since knowledge is man’s perfection as a man, knowledge is man’s good.
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Inter bona autem quaedam sunt laudabilia, illa scilicet quae sunt in ordine ad finem aliquem, laudamus enim bonum equum quia bene currit, quaedam vero sunt et honorabilia, illa scilicet quae sunt propter se ipsa, honoramus enim fines. In scientiis autem quaedam sunt practicae et quaedam speculativae, et hae differunt quia practicae sunt propter opus, speculativae vero propter se ipsas; et ideo scientiae speculativae et bonae sunt et honorabiles sunt, practicae vero laudabiles tantum. Omnis ergo scientia speculativa bona est et honorabilis,
Now, of good things some are praiseworthy, namely, those which are ordered to some end—as we praise a good horse because it runs well; while other good things are also honorable, namely, those that exist for their own sake; for we give honor to ends, not means. But of the sciences, some are practical, others speculative, the difference being that the former are for the sake of some work to be done, while the latter are for their own sake. The speculative sciences are, therefore, honorable as well as good, but the practical are only praiseworthy. Every speculative science, then, is both good and honorable.
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4. sed in ipsis scientiis speculativis invenitur gradus quantum ad bonitatem et honorabilitatem; scientia namque omnis ex actu laudatur, omnis autem actus laudatur ex duobus, ex obiecto et ex qualitate seu modo; sicut aedificare est melius quam facere lectum, quia obiectum aedificationis est melius lecto, in eodem autem respectu eiusdem rei, ipsa qualitas gradum quemdam facit, quia quanto modus aedificii est melior, tanto melius est aedificium. Sic ergo si consideretur scientia seu actus eius ex obiecto, patet quod illa scientia est nobilior quae est meliorum et honorabiliorum; si vero consideretur ex qualitate seu modo, sic illa est nobilior quae est certior. Sic ergo dicitur una scientia [magis] nobilior altera aut quia est meliorum et honorabiliorum, aut quia est magis certa.
4. Yet even among the speculative sciences there are degrees of goodness and honorableness. For every science is praised due to its act, and every act is praised based on two things: its object and its manner or quality. Thus, building is a better activity than bed-making because its object is better, whereas when one makes the same thing and in the same respect, the quality itself established the degree, since inasmuch as the manner of the building is better, the building is also better. Considering science, then, or its act from the point of view of the object, that science is nobler which is concerned with better and nobler things; but from the point of view of its quality or manner, the nobler science is that which is more certain. One science, then, is reckoned nobler than another either because it concerns better and nobler objects or because it is more certain.
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5. Sed hoc est in quibusdam scientiis diversum, quia aliquae sunt magis certae aliis et tamen sunt de rebus minus honorabilibus, alique vero sunt de rebus magis honorabilibus et melioribus et tamen sunt minus certe. Nihilominus tamen illa est melior quae de rebus melioribus et honorabilioribus est. Cuius ratio est quia, sicut dicit Philosophus in libro XI De animalibus, magis concupiscimus scire modicum de rebus honorabilioribus et altissimis, etiam si topice, id est probabiliter, illud sciamus, quam scire multum et per certitudinem de rebus minus nobilibus. Hoc enim habet nobilitatem ex se et ex sua substantia, illud vero ex modo et qualitate.
5. But there is this difference between sciences: some excel in certainty and yet are concerned with less honorable things, while others are concerned with more honorable and better things and are nevertheless less certain. All the same, that science is the better which is about better and more honorable things. For, as the Philosopher observes in Parts of Animals, we have a greater desire for even a little knowledge of more honorable and exalted things—even for a conjectural, that is, probable sort of knowledge—than for a great and certain knowledge of less noble things.1 For the former is noble in itself and from its substance, but the latter has it only through its quality or mode.
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6. Haec autem scientia, scilicet de anima, utrumque habet, quia et certa est (hoc enim quilibet experitur in se ipso, quod scilicet habeat animam et quod anima vivificet) et quia est nobiliorum (anima enim est nobilior inter inferiores creaturas).
6. Now, this science of the soul has both merits. It has certainty; for everyone experiences within himself both that he has a soul and that the soul gives him life. Also, this science is about nobler things; for among lower creatures, the soul is quite noble.
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Et hoc est quod dicit: nos opinantes notitiam, id est scientiam, omnem esse bonorum, id est de numero bonorum, et honorabilium;
This is what Aristotle means here when he says, holding as we do that knowledge (402a1), that is, science, is of good, that is, is in the number of good things, and honorable things.
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sed altera scientia est magis bona et honorabilis altera; aut ex eo quod meliorum: illorum scilicet quae sunt in sua natura bona; et mirabiliorum, id est illorum quorum causa ignoratur; propter utraque haec, id est haec duo praedicta; animae historiam:
And one science is better and nobler than another because it is about better things, that is, things that are good in their nature, and more wonderful things, that is, things whose cause is unknown. For both these reasons, he goes on to say, we give a primary place to an inquiry about the soul.
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dicit historiam, quia in quadam summa tractat de anima, non perveniendo ad finalem inquisitionem omnium quae pertinent ad ipsam animam in hoc tractatu; in primis: hoc si accipiatur quantum ad totam scientiam naturalem, non dicit ordinem sed dignitatem; si vero ad scientiam de rebus animatis tantum, sic ly in primis dicit ordinem.
He uses the term inquiry because he is going to discuss the soul in a summary way, without attempting, in this treatise, a thorough examination of all things that pertain to the soul itself. As to the words, a primary place, if they are taken as applying to the whole of natural science, then they refer to superiority in dignity and not to priority in order; but if they refer to the science of ensouled things only, they mean priority of order.
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7. Consequenter cum dicit: videtur autem etc., reddit auditorem benevolum ex utilitate huius scientiae, dicens quod cognitio de anima videtur multum proficere ad omnem veritatem quae traditur in aliis scientiis. Ad omnes enim partes philosophiae insignes dat occasiones.
7. Then, at indeed, knowledge (402a4), he gains the reader’s good will by showing the utility of this science. Knowledge of the soul, he says, would seem to help greatly in acquiring all truth treated in the other sciences. For it can be of considerable service to all parts of philosophy.1
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Quia si ad philosophiam primam attendamus, non possumus devenire in cognitionem divinorum et altissimarum causarum nisi per ea quae ex virtute intellectus primo acquirimus.
In first philosophy, it is impossible to come to knowledge of the divine and highest causes except through things that we acquire first from the power of understanding.
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Si vero attendatur quantum ad moralem, non possumus perfecte ad scientiam moralem pervenire nisi sciamus potentias animae; et inde est quod Philosophus in Ethicis attribuit quaslibet virtutes diversis potentiis animae.
In fact, as regards moral philosophy, we cannot attain perfectly the science of morals unless we know the powers of the soul; this is why, in the Ethics, the Philosopher assigns certain virtues to the different powers of the soul.1
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Ad naturalem vero, quia magna pars naturalium est habens animam et ipsa anima est fons et principium omnis motus in rebus animatis. Est enim anima tamquam principium animalium. Ly tamquam non ponitur similitudinarie, sed expressive.
So, too, it is useful for the natural scientist, because many of the natural things he studies possess soul, and the soul itself is the source and principle of every motion1 in all ensouled things. For the soul is, as it were, the principle of living things. The phrase, as it were, does not express a likeness; it is descriptive.
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8. Consequenter cum dicit: inquirimus autem considerare etc., ostendit ordinem huius tractatus, dicens quod intendimus considerare et cognoscere quid sit anima seu naturam ipsius et substantiam, et postea quaecumque accidunt circa ipsam, id est passiones eius;
8. Next, at we seek, then (402a7), he states the plan of his treatise, saying that we are to contemplate and know what the soul is, that is, its nature and substance; and then whatever qualities belong to it, that is, its passions.
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et in hoc est quaedam diversitas quia quaedam videntur passiones animae tantum, sicut intelligentia et speculatio, quaedam vero propter ipsam animam inesse videntur communes animalibus, sicut delectatio et tristitia, sensus et phantasia.
But in the latter, a diversity appears: for while some of the soul’s passions, such as understanding and speculative knowledge, seem to belong to the soul alone, others, such as pleasure and pain, sensation, and imagination,1 though a result of the soul itself, seem to be shared in common by all animals.
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9. Consequenter cum dicit: omnino autem et penitus difficillimorum etc., ostendit difficultatem huius tractatus, et hoc quantum ad duo:
9. Then, at to ascertain (402a10), he introduces the difficulty of this study; and this, from two points of view.
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primo quantum ad cognoscendum substantiam animae;
It is hard, first, to know the substance of the soul;
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secundo quantum ad cognoscendum accidentia seu proprias passiones.
and second, it is hard to know its accidents or proper passions (40313; [16]).
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Quantum autem ad primum ostendit duplicem difficultatem:
As to the substance, there is a double difficulty:
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et primo quantum ad modum definiendi ipsam animam;
first, as to how the soul itself ought to be defined;
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secundo quantum ad ea quae intrant definitionem.
and then, as to the elements of the definition (402a22; [10]).
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Dicit ergo quod, quamvis sit utilis scientia de anima, tamen difficile est scire de anima quid est; et haec difficultas est in qualibet re, cum sit una communis quaestio multis aliis circa substantiam eorum et circa quid est. Est ergo prima difficultas quia nos nescimus per quam viam procedendum sit ad definitionem, quia quidam dicunt quod demonstrando, quidam quod dividendo, quidam vero quod componendo. Aristoteles autem voluit quod componendo.
He remarks, therefore, that while knowledge of the soul would be valuable, it is not easy to know just what the soul is. Now, this is a difficulty in studying anything; the inquiry into the substance, and what each thing is, is common to the study of soul and of many other things. The first difficulty is that we do not know what path to follow to the definition; for some say we should use demonstration, others, the method of division, still others, one of composition. Aristotle himself preferred the method of composition.
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10. Secunda difficultas est de his quae ponuntur in definitione; definitio enim notificat essentiam rei, quae non potest sciri nisi sciantur principia; sed diversorum sunt diversa principia et ideo difficile est scire ex quibus sumantur principia.
10. The second difficulty concerns the elements of the definition. A definition manifests a thing’s essence; and this cannot be grasped apart from knowing its principles. But different things have different principles, so it is hard to know from which things the principles are drawn.
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Illa ergo quae ingerunt difficultatem ponentibus definitionem reducuntur ad tria,
Hence, the things that engender difficulty for those formulating a definition reduce to three:
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primo scilicet circa substantiam animae,
first, concerning the soul’s substance;
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secundo circa partes eius,
second, concerning its parts;
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tertio <circa> adiutorium quod necessarium est in definitionibus ex accidentibus animae.
third, concerning that necessary contribution to a definition that comes from knowing the soul’s accidents.
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11. Circa substantiam est dubitatio de genere: hoc enim primo quaerimus in definitione cuiuslibet rei, ut scilicet sciamus genus, et ideo quaerendum est in quo genere sit ponenda anima, utrum scilicet in genere substantiae vel in quanto vel in quali; et non solum est accipere genus supremum, sed propinquum: neque enim quando hominem definimus substantiam accipimus, sed animal.
11. As regards the substance of soul, there is a doubt about the genus, for in the definition of each and every thing, we seek this first—that is, that we know its genus—so one must ask: in what genus should the soul be placed? In the genus of substance, or in quantity, or in quality? And not only must we decide upon the ultimate genus, but also on the proximate one; thus, we do not define man as a substance, but as an animal.1
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Et si invenitur in genere substantiae, adhuc cum unumquodque genus dicatur dupliciter, hoc quidem potentia, hoc autem actu, quaerendum erit utrum sit potentia vel actus.
And if soul is found to be in the genus of substance, we shall still have to seek whether it is actual or potential substance, since every genus is spoken of in these two ways, either as potential or as actual.
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Item, quia substantiarum quaedam sunt compositae, quaedam simplices, quaerendum erit utrum anima sit composita aut simplex, et utrum partibilis vel impartibilis.
Also, since substances are either composite or simple, we shall have to ask whether the soul is composite or simple, and whether it is divisible or indivisible.
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Est etiam quaestio utrum sit unius speciei omnis anima ad omnem animam aut non; et si non sit unius speciei, adhuc est quaestio utrum specie differant aut genere.
There is also the question whether all souls1 are of the same species or not; and if they are not of one species, whether they differ specifically or generically.
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Item adhuc dubitatio est circa ea quae participant definitionem: quaedam enim definiuntur ut genus, quaedam vero ut species; et ideo videtur esse quaestio utrum definitio animae sit sicut generis aut sicut speciei specialissimae.
Again, there is uncertainty as to what is to be included in the definition, for some things are defined as a genus, some as a species; hence, the question whether we should define soul is that of a genus or that of a most specific species.
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12. Nam aliqui quaerentes de anima videntur intendere solum de anima humana; et quia apud antiquos philosophos erat duplex opinio de anima
12. For some inquirers seem to deal only with the human soul. And among the earlier philosophers there were two opinions about the soul.
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(Platonici enim qui ponebant universalia separata scilicet quod essent formae et ideae et erant causa rebus particularibus cognitionis et esse, volebant quod esset quaedam anima separata per se, quae esset causa et idea animabus particularibus, et quidquid invenitur in eis derivatur ab illa;
The Platonists, holding that universals existed separately as the forms or ideas that caused knowledge and being in individual things, maintained that there was a separated soul-in-itself that was the cause and idea of particular souls and from which all that we find in these drew their origin.
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naturales autem philosophi volebant quod non essent substantiae naturales nisi particulares tantum et quod universalia nihil sint in rerum natura),
On the other hand, there were natural philosophers who maintained that no universal substances exist in the nature of things, and that the only natural things are individuals.
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et propter hoc est quaestio utrum sit quaerenda una communis ratio animae sicut dicebant Platonici, vel huius vel illius animae sicut dicebant Naturales, scilicet ut animae equi vel hominis aut dei. Et dicit dei, quia credebant corpora caelestia esse deos et dicebant ea esse animata.
And this raises the question whether, like the Platonists, one ought to look for a single common account of soul, or rather ought one, like the natural philosophers, look for the account of this or that soul, such as the soul of horse, or that of man, or that of god. He says, of god, because they used to believe that the heavenly bodies were gods, and said they were ensouled.
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13. Aristoteles autem vult quod quaeratur ratio utriusque, et communis animae et cuiuslibet speciei. Quod autem circa hoc dicit: animal autem universale aut nihil est aut posterius, sciendum est quod de animali universali possumus loqui dupliciter, quia aut secundum quod est universale (quod scilicet est unum in multis aut de multis), aut secundum quod est animal; <si secundum quod est> universale, et hoc vel secundum quod est in rerum natura, vel secundum quod est in intellectu. Secundum quod est in rerum natura, Plato voluit animal universale aliquid esse et esse prius particulari, quia, ut dictum est, posuit universalia separata et ideas; Aristoteles autem, quod nihil est in rerum natura; et si aliquid est, dixit illud esse posterius. Si autem accipiamus naturam animalis non secundum quod subiacet intentioni universalitatis, sic aliquid est et prius, sicut quod in potentia prius est quam illud quod est in actu.
13. However, Aristotle chose to seek an account for each—both a common one of soul and one of each species. But when he says, on this point, that animal as a universal is nothing, or is secondary, we must understand that one can speak of the universal “animal” in two ways: either as universal, that is, as one thing existing in, or predicated of, many individuals; or as animal. And if it be considered as universal, this too is either insofar as it exists in the nature of things or insofar as it exists in the intellect. Insofar as it exists in the nature of things, Plato held that the universal animal did so exist and existed prior to the particular, because, as has been said, he thought that there were separated universals and ideas. Aristotle, however, says that the universal is nothing in the nature of things, and if it is anything at all, it exists after. But if we regard the nature of animal not insofar as it is subject to the intention of universality, then it is something, and something prior, just as what is in potency is prior to what is in act.
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14. Consequenter cum dicit: amplius autem, tangit difficultates quae emergunt circa potentias animae. In anima enim sunt partes potentiales, scilicet intellectivum, sensitivum, vegetativum; est ergo quaestio utrum hae sint diversae animae sicut Platonici volebant, aut sint partes potentiales animae;
14. Then, at further, if there are not many (402b9), Aristotle touches on the difficulties that arise concerning the soul’s powers. For in the soul there are potential parts: the intellectual, the sensitive, and the vegetative. So the question is whether these are different souls, as the Platonists thought, or are they potential parts of the soul.
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et si sint partes potentiales, quaeritur etiam utrum primo debeamus quaerere potentias quam actus ipsarum, ut intelligere aut intellectivum, et sentire, quod est actus, aut sensitivum, quod est potentia. Et similiter in aliis potentiis et actibus. Et si primo debemus quaerere actus quam potentias, adhuc erit quaestio utrum sint prius quaerenda obiecta horum actuum quam potentiae, ut puta prius debeat quaeri sensibile quam sensitivum aut intelligibile quam intellectivum.
And if they are potential parts, we must further ask whether we should inquire first into the powers themselves, and then into their acts—for instance, understanding or the intellectual power, and sensing, which is the act, or the sensitive power, which is a potency. And likewise in other acts and powers. And if we should take the acts before the powers, there is still the question whether the objects of these acts should be studied before the powers, for example, the sensible before the sense power or the intelligible before the intellectual power.
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15. Consequenter cum dicit: videtur autem <non solum> quod quid est, ponit difficultates quae emergunt quantum ad illa quae sunt in adiutorium definitionis animae, quia in definitione oportet non solum cognoscere principia essentialia, sed etiam accidentalia. Si enim recte definirentur et possent cognosci principia essentialia, definitio non indigeret accidentibus; sed quia principia essentialia rerum sunt nobis ignota, ideo oportet quod utamur differentiis accidentalibus in designatione essentialium (bipes enim non est essentiale, sed ponitur in designatione essentialis), et ut per ea, scilicet per differentias accidentales, perveniamus in cognitionem essentialium.
15. Next, at now, it seems (402b16), he states the difficulties that arise with regard to things that contribute to a definition of the soul. For these are relevant here because in a definition one must know not only its essential principles but even its accidental ones. For if it were correctly defined and its essential principles could be known, the definition would not need the accidents; but since the essential principles of things are unknown to us, we must make use of accidental differences as indication of the essentials. For example, to be two-footed is not essential, yet it is put in it to indicate the essential. And through such (that is, through accidental differences) we reach the knowledge of the essential ones.
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Et ideo difficile est, quia oportet nos cognoscere quod quid est animae ad cognoscendum facilius accidentia animae, sicut in mathematicis valde utile est praeaccipere quod quid erat esse recti et curvi et plani ad cognoscendum quot rectis trianguli anguli sint aequales; e converso etiam accidentia si praeaccipiantur, multum conferunt ad cognoscendum quod quid erat esse, ut dictum est. Si quis ergo assignet definitionem per quam non deveniatur in cognitionem accidentium rei definitae, illa definitio non est realis, sed remota et dialectica; sed illa definitio per quam devenitur in cognitionem accidentium est realis et ex propriis et essentialibus rei.
Hence, the difficulty of our present position. It would indeed be easier to know the soul’s accidents if we first knew the what-it-is of the soul, just as in mathematics it is very helpful to know first the “what it was to be” of the straight, and of the curved, and of a plane in order to know how many right angles equal the angels of a triangle. Conversely, a prior examination of accidental qualities contributes much to knowing what a thing is, as has been said. If, therefore, one were to propose a definition from which no knowledge of the accidents of the defined thing could be discovered, such a definition is not the real one, but a remote and dialectical one. But the definition from which a knowledge of the accidents flows is real and based on what is proper and essential to the thing.
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L. 2 (Α.1–2, 403a3–403b24)Questions of method
Huius scientiae praemissa difficultate, ac variis definiendi et sciendi generibus, ostendit de anima contemplationem ad quam philosophiae partem spectat
Questions of method
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Dubitationem autem habent et passiones animae, utrum sint omnes communes et habentis, an sit aliqua et animae propria ipsius.
The passions of the soul also present a problem: are they all common and belong to what has soul, or are some even proper to the soul itself?
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Hoc enim accipere quidem necessarium est, non autem leve. Videtur autem plurimorum quidem nullum sine corpore pati neque facere, ut irasci, confidere, desiderare, omnino sentire. Maxime autem videtur proprium intelligere. Si autem est et hoc phantasia quaedam aut non sine phantasia, non continget utique neque hoc sine corpore esse.
It is necessary indeed, but not easy, to deal with this problem. For in most cases it is seen that none are undergone or done without the body, as in becoming angry, daring, desiring, and sensing altogether. Understanding, however, would seem especially proper to the soul. Yet if this too is a sort of imagination, or it does not occur without imagination, not even this could exist without the body.
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Si quidem igitur est aliquid animae operum aut passionum proprium, continget utique ipsam separari. Si vero nullum est proprium ipsius, non utique erit separabilis, sed sicut recto in quantum rectum multa accidunt, ut tangere aeneam sphaeram secundum punctum, non tamen tanget ab hoc separatum rectum. Inseparabile enim, si quidem semper cum quodam corpore est.
So if something of the works or passions belonging to the soul is proper to it, then it could be separated. If, however, there is nothing proper to it, then it will not be separable, but will be like a straight line, which as straight has many accidentals—such as being able to touch a bronze sphere at a point; but due to its being separated, the straight will not touch it. For it is inseparable if it is indeed always with a certain body.
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Videntur autem et animae passiones omnes esse cum corpore, ira, mansuetudo, timor, misericordia, confidentia. Adhuc gaudium et amare et odire. Simul enim his patitur aliquid corpus. Indicat autem hoc aliquando quidem, duris et manifestis passionibus concidentibus, nihil provocari aut timere, aliquando et a parvis et debilibus moveri, cum accendatur corpus et sic se habeat sicut cum irascitur. Adhuc autem magis hoc manifestum: nullo enim terribili inminente in passionibus fiunt his aliqui timentes. Si autem sic habet, manifestum quod passiones rationes in materia sunt. Quare termini tales ut irasci motus quidam talis corporis aut partis aut potentiae ab hoc et gratia huius.
Now, all the soul’s passions do seem to occur with the body—anger, meekness, fear, compassion, and confidence. And even joy and loving and hating. For along with these the body also undergoes something. An indication of this is that sometimes when violent and manifest things are undergone, nothing is provoked, not even fear, while at other times one is moved even by slight and trifling matters, when the body is stimulated and is in a state just like when one becomes angry. This is still more evident when people are frightened without anything fearful being present. If this is the case, it is evident that the passions are accounts within matter. Hence such terms as “becoming angry” mean a motion of a certain sort of body, or of a part, or of a power arising from this and for the sake of that.
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Et propter haec igitur iam physici est considerare de anima aut omni aut huiusmodi.
For these reasons right away, therefore, the student of nature ought to contemplate the soul, either all kinds, or this kind.
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Differenter autem diffiniet physicus et dialecticus unumquodque ipsorum, ut iram quid est. Hic quidem enim appetitum recontristationis, aut aliquid huiusmodi, ille autem fervorem sanguinis aut calidi circa cor.
But the student of nature and the dialectician will define each of these very things differently, for example, what anger is. For the latter will say, “a desire for retaliation,” or something similar, the former, “an effervescence of blood or heat about the heart.”
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Horum autem alius quidem assignat materiam, alius vero speciem et rationem: ratio quidem enim haec irae. Necesse est autem hanc esse in materia huiusmodi, si erit, sicut domus ratio quidem talis quaedam, quia operimentum prohibens corruptiones a ventis et imbribus et caumatibus. Haec autem dicit lapides et lateres et ligna. Alia vero in his speciem propter ista. Quae igitur naturalis harum, utrum que circa materiam, rationem autem ignorans, aut que circa rationem solum,
Of these, the student of nature designates the matter; the dialectician, the species and account, for this is the account of anger. This, however, must have existence in material of this sort, if it will exist, just as the account of a house is of a certain sort, since it is a covering to prevent destruction from wind and rain and excessive heat. Now, this one says it is stones and beams and timber, but another one says it is the species in these things for the sake of those things. Which of these, then, is the natural one? That which concerns the matter and ignores the account? Or that which concerns only the account?
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aut magis quae ex utrisque? lllorum autem quis uterque. Aut non est aliquis qui circa passiones materiae non separabiles neque in quantum separabiles, sed physicus circa omnes quaecumque talis corporis et huiusmodi materiae opera et passiones sunt.
Or rather, the compound of both? What, then, of the other two? Or else there is no one who deals with inseparable passions of matter, not precisely as inseparable from it; but the student of nature is one who is concerned with all the passions and activities of a sort of matter and of a certain sort of body.
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Circa quascumque autem non huiusmodi, alius, ut de quibusdam quidem artifex est, si contingat, ut instructor aut medicus.
Whereas someone else considers these things but not in this way, for instance, for certain things it may be the artisan, like a teacher or a physician.
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Non separabilium quidem, in quantum autem non talis corporis passiones, sed ex remotione, mathematicus. Secundum autem quod separatae, primus philosophus.
It is the mathematician, however, who is concerned with things that are not separable from matter, but inasmuch as they are not passions of a certain sort of body, but in fact are removed from it; and the one concerned with what is separable is the first philosopher.
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Sed redeundum est unde sermo. Dicebamus autem quod passiones animae non separabiles a physica materia animalium in quantum tales existunt furor et timor, et non sicut linea et planum.
But we must return from our digression. We were saying that the passions of the soul are not separable from the physical material of animals (inasmuch as fury and fear exist in this way), and not like the line and the plane.
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Intendentes autem de anima, necesse est simul dubitantes de quibus abundare oportet, pertranseuntes priorum opiniones comprehendere quicumque aliquid de ipsa enuntiaverunt, ut bene quidem dicta accipiamus, si vero aliquid non bene, hoc vertemur.1
Investigating the soul, it is necessary to be thorough, while suspending judgment, comprehensively running through the opinions of certain prior thinkers who have spoken about this, whatever they have said, so that we might receive things said well, while if something was not said well, we might avoid this.
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16. Dubitationem autem habent etc. Postquam Philosophus ostendit difficultatem quae est in scientia de anima ex parte substantiae et quod quid est animae, hic consequenter ostendit difficultatem quae est ex parte passionum et accidentium animae.
16. The passions of the soul (403a3). Having shown the difficulty of this science in respect of the problem of the soul’s substance and what it is, the Philosopher proceeds to manifest the difficulty on the side of its passions and accidentals.
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Et circa hoc duo facit:
And here he does two things.
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primo movet dubitationem circa passiones animae et solvit eam;
He first states and solves a difficulty concerning the soul’s passions;
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secundo ex huius solutione ostendit quod cognitio de anima pertinet ad philosophum naturalem seu ad physicum, ibi: et propter haec iam physici etc.
and then, using this solution, he shows that knowledge about the soul pertains to the natural (or physical) philosopher, where he says, for these reasons right away, therefore, the student of nature (403a27; [23]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod dubitatio est circa passiones animae et operationes, utrum scilicet sint animae propriae sine communicatione corporis, ut Platoni videbatur, vel nulla sit propria animae, sed omnes sint communes corporis et compositi.
As to the first point, he says it is a problem whether the soul’s passions and activities are proper to the soul independently of the body, as it seemed to Plato, or are none of them proper to the soul, being all shared by body and the composite.
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17. Et circa hanc duo facit
17. At it is necessary (403a5), he again does two things.
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(primo enim ostendit difficultatem huius quaestionis,
First, he shows the difficulty of the question;
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secundo vero necessitatem),
second, at but if the soul (403a10; [21]), the necessity of considering it.
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dicens quod accipere hoc, scilicet utrum passiones et operationes animae sint communes vel propriae, est necessarium et non est leve, sed valde difficile.
He begins, then, by observing that this problem, whether the soul’s passions and activities are proper to it or shared by the body, is a necessary one, and that this is not an easy question but a very difficult one.
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Et quod sit difficile, ostendit dicens quod causa difficultatis est quia in apparenti videtur quod multae passiones sint communes et non possint pati sine corpore, ut puta irasci et sentire et huiusmodi, quorum nihil patitur anima sine corpore. Sed, si aliqua operatio esset propria animae, appareret hoc de operatione intellectus: intelligere enim, quae est operatio intellectus, maxime videtur proprium esse animae.
The difficulty, as he explains, arises from the fact that it is seen (403a5), in their appearance, that many passions are common to soul and body and cannot be undergone without the body, as for instance, becoming angry and sensing and so on; in these things the soul undergoes nothing without the body doing so as well. But if there is any activity proper to the soul, this would be apparent for the activity of the intellect; for understanding, which is the intellect’s activity, seems to be especially proper to the soul.
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18. Si quis tamen recte consideret, non videtur proprium animae intelligere. Cum enim intelligere vel est phantasia, ut Stoici dicebant, aut non sine phantasia,—fuerunt enim quidam sicut antiqui naturales qui dicebant quod intellectus non differebat a sensu, et si hoc esset, tunc intellectus in nullo differret a phantasia, et ideo Stoici moti sunt ad ponendum intellectum esse phantasiam,—cum ergo phantasia indigeat corpore, dicebant quod intelligere non est proprium animae, sed commune animae et corpori. Si autem detur quod intellectus non sit phantasia, nihilominus tamen non est intelligere sine phantasia, restat adhuc quod intelligere non sit proprium animae, cum phantasia indigeat corpore. Non ergo contingit hoc, scilicet intelligere, esse sine corpore.
18. And yet, on closer consideration, even understanding does not seem to be proper to the soul. For either understanding is imagination, as the Stoics thought, or it does not occur without imagination, for there were some, such as the early students of nature, who used to say that intellect is not different from sensation, which would imply that it is not different from the imagination, as this is why the Stoics were led to say the intellect is imagination.1 As, then, imagination needs the body, they said that understanding is not proper to the soul but rather is common to soul and body. And even were it granted that intellect is not imagination, nevertheless there is no understanding without imagination. It would follow that understanding is not proper to the soul, since imagination requires the body. Therefore, it does not happen that this, namely understanding, exists without the body.
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19. Quamvis autem hoc Aristoteles satis aperte manifestet in III huius, nihilominus tamen quantum ad hoc aliquid exponemus. Nam intelligere quodam modo est proprium animae, quodam modo est coniuncti. Sciendum est igitur quod aliqua operatio animae est aut passio quae indiget corpore sicut instrumento et sicut obiecto; sicut videre indiget corpore sicut obiecto quia color, qui est obiectum visus, est corporis,1 item sicut instrumento quia visio, etsi sit ab anima, non est tamen nisi per organum visus, scilicet per pupillam quae est ut instrumentum; et sic videre non est animae tantum, sed etiam organi.
19. Now, although Aristotle clears up this problem in Book 3,1 we shall say something about it here. For understanding is in a certain way proper to the soul, and in another way it belongs to the composite. Therefore, it should be realized that certain activities or passions of the soul need the body both as an instrument and as an object. Sight, for instance, needs a body as object because its object is color, which belongs to body; and also as an instrument because, while the act of seeing comes from the soul, it cannot occur except through the visual organ, that is, the pupil of the eye, which is the instrument. Seeing, then, belongs not to the soul alone but also to the organ.
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Aliqua autem operatio est quae indiget corpore, non tamen sicut instrumento, sed sicut obiecto tantum; intelligere enim non est per organum corporale, sed indiget obiecto corporali: sicut enim Philosophus dicit in III huius, hoc modo phantasmata se habent ad intellectum sicut colores ad visum, colores autem se habent ad visum sicut obiecta, phantasmata ergo se habent ad intellectum sicut obiecta;
But there is one activity that needs the body not as its instrument but only for its object. For understanding does not occur through a bodily organ, though it does need a bodily object; for, as will be shown later, in Book 3,1 things imagined stand to the intellect in the way that colors stand to sight, whereas colors stand to sight as its objects, so the things imagined stand to the intellect as its objects.
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cum ergo phantasmata non sint sine corpore, inde est quod intelligere non est sine corpore, ita tamen quod sit sicut obiectum, non sicut instrumentum.
Since, then, things cannot be imagined without a body, this is why understanding does not occur without a body—not, however, such that it is its instrument, but as its object.
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20. Et ex hoc duo sequuntur. Unum est quod intelligere est propria operatio animae et non indiget corpore nisi ut obiecto tantum, ut dictum est; videre autem et aliae operationes et passiones non sunt animae tantum, sed coniuncti.
20. Two things follow from this. One is that understanding is an activity proper to the soul, needing the body, as was said above, only as needing its object; seeing and various other activities and passions, on the other hand, belong not to the soul alone but to the compound of soul and body together.
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Aliud est quod illud quod habet operationem per se, habet esse et subsistentiam per se, et illud quod non habet operationem per se, non habet esse per se; et ideo intellectus est forma subsistens, aliae potentiae sunt formae in materia.
The other is that whatever has an activity through itself has also being and subsistence through itself, and what does not have its activity through itself does not have being through itself. Intellect, then, is a subsistent form, whereas the other powers are forms in matter.
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Et in hoc erat difficultas huius quaestionis, quia scilicet omnes passiones animae secundum apparentiam videntur coniuncti.
And the difficulty in dealing with this type of question arises simply from the fact that all passions of the soul seem at first sight to be also functions of the body.
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21. Consequenter cum dicit: si quidem igitur aliquid etc., assignat causam necessitatis huius quaestionis, quia scilicet ex hoc habetur unum quod omnes maxime scire desiderant circa animam, utrum scilicet contingat animam separari, dicens quod si contingat aliquam propriam operationem aut passionem animae esse, utique continget ipsam animam separari a corpore, quia, ut dictum est, quod habet operationem per se, habet etiam esse et subsistentiam per se. Si vero non esset aliqua propria operatio seu passio animae, eadem ratione non contingeret ipsam animam separari a corpore; sed erit de anima sicut de recto: licet enim multa accidant recto in quantum rectum, ut scilicet tangere aeneam sphaeram secundum punctum, non tamen accidunt ei nisi in materia, non enim tangit rectum in puncto aeneam sphaeram nisi in materia; sic erit de anima si non habet propriam operationem quod, licet multa ei accidant, non tamen accidunt ei nisi in materia.
21. After this, when Aristotle says, so if something (403a10), he states a reason for taking up this question, namely, that on it depends the answer to a question that everyone asks very eagerly about the soul: whether it can be separated from the body. So he says that if it is possible that there is some activity or passion proper to the soul, it could be separated from the body because, as was pointed out above, what has an activity through itself also has existence and subsistence through itself. Conversely, if the soul had no such proper activity or passion, for the same reason the soul itself could not be separated from the body. Rather, the soul would be like a straight line—for though many things can happen to a straight line as straight, such as being able to touch a bronze sphere at a point, they can only happen to it as in matter, for a straight line does not touch a bronze sphere at a point except when it is in matter. So also with the soul, if it has no proper activity; however many things happen to it, they will happen to it only insofar as it is in matter.
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22. Consequenter cum dicit: videntur autem et animae passiones etc., manifestat illud quod supposuerat, scilicet quod quaedam passiones animae sint coniuncti et non animae tantum. Cuius ratio talis est:
22. Next, when he says, now, all the soul’s passions do seem (403a16), he makes manifest what had been presupposed above, namely, that certain passions belong to the composite, not to the soul alone. And this he shows by the following argument.
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omne ad quod operatur complexio corporis non est animae tantum, sed etiam corporis; sed complexio corporis operatur ad omnes passiones animae, ut puta ad iram, mansuetudinem, timorem, confidentiam, misericordiam et huiusmodi; videntur ergo animae passiones omnes esse cum corpore.
Everything to which the bodily constitution contributes belongs not to the soul alone but to the body as well; but the bodily constitution contributes to all the passions of the soul, such as anger, meekness, fear, confidence, pity, and so forth; hence, all these passions would seem to occur with the body.
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Et quod ad huiusmodi passiones operetur complexio corporis, probat dupliciter.
And to show that the bodily constitution contributes to such passions, he uses two arguments.
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Primo sic: quia nos videmus quod aliquando superveniunt durae et manifestae passiones et homo non provocatur neque timet, sed si accendatur ex furore seu ex complexione corpus, a valde parvis et debilibus movetur et sic se habet sicut cum irascitur.
First, we sometimes see a man beset by obvious and severe passions without being provoked or frightened, whereas if his body is already stimulated by rage, that is, due to its constitution, he is moved by slight and trifling matters and is in a state just like when one becomes angry.
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Secundo probat dicens adhuc fit magis manifestum quod ad huiusmodi passiones operetur complexio corporis: videmus enim quod, etiam si nullum immineat periculum, fiunt in aliquibus passiones similes his passionibus quae sunt circa animam, ut puta melancholicis frequenter si nullum periculum immineat, ex ipsa complexione inordinata fiunt timentes. Ergo quia sic se habet, scilicet quod complexio operetur ad passiones huiusmodi, manifestum est quod huiusmodi passiones sunt rationes in materia, id est habentes esse in materia. Et propter hoc termini tales, id est definitiones harum passionum, non assignantur sine materia; sicut si definiatur ira, dicetur quod est motus talis corporis [sive cordis] aut partis aut potentiae, et hoc dicit quantum ad subiectum seu causam materialem; ab hoc, quantum ad causam efficientem; et gratia huius, quantum ad causam finalem.
Second, at this is still more evident, he makes it even clearer that the bodily constitution contributes to such passions. For we see in some people, even when there is no danger present, passions arising that are like these passions of the soul; for instance, melancholy people, simply as a result of their disordered constitution itself, are often fearful when there is no imminent danger. It is evident, then, if this is the case, that is, if one’s constitution contributes to the passions in this way, that such passions are accounts within matter, that is, accounts that have their being in matter.1 This is why such terms, that is, the definitions of these passions, are not designated without reference to matter; for example, if anger is being defined, it will be called a movement of a certain sort of body, such as the heart, or of a part or of a power of the body (saying this in reference to the subject or material cause) arising from this (in reference to the efficient cause) and for the sake of that (in reference to the final cause).
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23. Consequenter cum dicit: et propter haec igitur etc., concludit ex his quae dicta sunt quod consideratio de anima pertinet ad naturalem. Et hoc ex modo definiendi concludit et ideo hic duo facit:
23. Then, at for these reasons (403a27), he concludes from the foregoing that the contemplation of the soul pertains to the student of nature—a conclusion following from the way the soul is defined. So he does two things here:
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primo probat propositum;
first, he proves his statement;
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secundo insistit circa definitiones, ibi: differenter autem definiet etc.
second, he pursues his discussion of definitions, where he says, the student of nature and the dialectician (403a29; [24]).
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Probat autem propositum hoc modo. Operationes animae et passiones sunt passiones corporis et operationes, ut ostensum est. Omnis autem passio cum definitur oportet quod habeat in sui definitione illud cuius est passio. Nam subiectum semper cadit in definitione passionis. Si ergo passiones huiusmodi non sint tantum animae, sed etiam corporis, de necessitate oportet quod in definitione ipsarum ponatur corpus. Sed omne in quo est corpus seu materia pertinet ad naturalem. Ergo et passiones huiusmodi pertinent ad naturalem. Sed cuius est considerare passiones, eius est considerare subiectum ipsarum. Et ideo iam physici est considerare de anima aut omni, simpliciter, aut huiusmodi, scilicet de ea quae est affixa corpori; et hoc dicit quia reliquerat sub dubio utrum intellectus sit potentia affixa corpori.
The proof of this statement runs thus. Activities and passions of the soul are also activities and passions of the body, as has been shown. But the definition of any passion must include that to which the passion belongs; for the subject of a passion always falls within the definition of the passion. If, then, such passions belong not only to the soul but also to the body, the body must be included in the definition of the passions themselves. But everything in which body or matter is present pertains to natural science. Therefore such passions also pertain to natural science. Moreover, since contemplating the subject of passions belongs to the one who is contemplating the passions, the student of nature ought to contemplate the soul—either absolutely all souls or this kind, that is, the soul that is joined to a body. He adds this because he has left it uncertain whether intellect is joined to the body.
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24. Consequenter cum dicit: differenter autem etc., insistit circa definitiones. Quia enim ostendit quod in definitionibus passionum animae aliquae sunt in quibus ponitur materia et corpus, aliquae vero in quibus non ponitur materia sed forma tantum, ostendit quod huiusmodi definitiones sunt insufficientes. Et circa hoc investigat differentiam quae invenitur in istis definitionibus: aliquando enim datur aliqua definitio in qua nihil est ex parte corporis, sicut quod ira est appetitus vindictae; aliquando assignatur aliqua definitio in qua est aliquid ex parte corporis seu materiae, sicut quod ira est accensio sanguinis circa cor; prima est dialectica, secunda vero est physica, cum ponatur ibi aliquid ex parte materiae, et ideo pertinet ad naturalem. Hic enim, scilicet physicus, assignat materiam, cum dicit quod ira est accensio sanguinis circa cor; alius vero, scilicet dialecticus, ponit speciem et rationem: haec enim, scilicet appetitus vindictae, est ratio irae.
24. Where he says, the student of nature and the dialectician (403a29), he continues his discussion of definitions. For because he shows that, while some definitions of the passions of the soul include matter and the body, others exclude matter and refer only to the form, he shows that the latter sort of definition is inadequate. This leads him to go into the difference between such definitions. For sometimes a definition is given in which there is nothing on the side of the body, such as that anger is a desire for vengeance; and sometimes a definition is presented in which there is something on the side of the body or matter, such as that anger is the heating up of blood surrounding the heart. The former is a dialectical definition, but the latter is natural, since it includes something on the side of matter, and so pertains to the student of nature. For he, that is, the student of nature, designates the matter when he says that anger is a heating up of blood surrounding the heart, whereas the other, that is, the dialectician, points to the species and notion; for this, that is, a desire for vengeance, is the notion of anger.
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25. Quod autem definitio prima sit insufficiens, manifeste apparet. Nam omnis forma quae est in materia determinata, nisi in sua definitione ponatur materia, illa definitio est insufficiens; sed haec forma, scilicet appetitus vindictae, est forma in materia determinata; unde, cum non ponatur in eius definitione materia, constat quod ipsa definitio est insufficiens. Et ideo necesse est ad definitionem quod in definitione ponatur hanc, scilicet formam, esse in materia huiusmodi, scilicet determinata.
25. Now, the first definition is obviously inadequate. For the definition of any form that exists in a determinate matter will be insufficient unless matter is placed within its definition. But this form, namely, the desire for vengeance, is a form in a determinate matter; whence, if matter is not placed in its definition, the definition itself is clearly inadequate. The definition, then, must state that this, that is, the form, has existence in material of this sort, namely, determinate matter.
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26. Et sic habemus tres definitiones, quia una assignat speciem et speciei rationem et est formalis tantum, sicut si definiatur domus quod sit operimentum prohibens a ventis et imbribus et caumatibus; alia autem assignat materiam, sicut si dicatur quod domus est operimentum quoddam ex lapidibus, lateribus et lignis; alia vero assignat, id est in definitione ponit, utrumque, materiam scilicet et formam, dicens quod domus est operimentum tale constans ex talibus et propter talia, scilicet ut prohibeat ventos etc. Et ideo dicit quod alia definitio, scilicet tertia, ponit in his, scilicet in lignis et lapidibus, quae sunt ex parte materiae, speciem, id est formam, propter ista, scilicet ut prohibeat ventos; et sic complectitur materiam cum dicit in his, formam cum dicit speciem, et causam finalem cum dicit propter ista, quae tria requiruntur ad perfectam definitionem.
26. Thus we have three definitions. The first designates the species and the account of the species1 and is purely formal—as if one were to define a house as a covering to prevent destruction from wind and rain and excessive heat. The second designates the matter, as when a house is called a covering made of stones and beams and wood. But another designates, that is, puts in the definition, each of them: the matter and the form, calling a house a sort of covering built of certain things and for the sake of certain other things—that is, to keep out the wind, etc. This is why he says that another definition (the third) places in these things (that is, in the beams and stones, which stand on the side of matter) the species (that is, the form) for the sake of those things (that is, to keep out the wind). So matter is included when he says, in these, form when he says, species, and the final cause when he says, for the sake of those things. All three are needed for a perfect definition.
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27. Sed quaeramus quae istarum definitionum sit naturalis et quae non? Illa autem quae considerat formam tantum non est naturalis sed logica; illa vero quae circa materiam, ignorat autem formam, nullius est nisi naturalis: nullus enim habet considerare materiam nisi naturalis; nihilominus tamen illa quae ex utrisque est, scilicet ex materia et forma, est magis naturalis. Et duae harum definitionum pertinent ad naturalem, sed una est imperfecta, scilicet illa quae ponit materiam tantum, alia vero perfecta, scilicet illa quae est ex utrisque. Non est enim aliquis qui consideret passiones materiae non separabiles nisi physicus.
27. To the question, which of these definitions belongs to natural science, I answer that one that contemplates only the form is not natural but logical, whereas that which concerns the matter but ignores the form belongs to no one but the student of nature, because only he contemplates the matter. Yet that which is the compound of both, that is, of matter and form, belongs to the student of nature still more so. Thus two of these definitions pertain to natural science, but one is imperfect (that is, the one that presents only the matter) while the other (the one that is composed of both) is perfect. For there is no one who deals with inseparable passions of matter except the student of nature.
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28. Sed quia sunt aliqui qui aliter considerant passiones materiae, ideo ostendit qui sint et qualiter considerent, et dicit quod sunt tres.
28. But because there are some who consider the passions of matter in a different way, he therefore shows who they are and how they consider it. He says they are three.
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Unum genus quorum differt a naturali quantum ad principium, licet consideret passiones prout sunt in materia, sicut artifex qui considerat formam in materia, sed differt quia huius principium est ars, physici vero principium est natura.
One kind consists of those who differ from the student of nature as regards the principle, although he considers passions insofar as they exist in matter, for example, the artisan, who does consider the form in its matter, but differs from the student of nature because his principle is the art, whereas the principle of the student of nature is the nature.
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Aliud genus est quod quidem considerat ea quae habent esse in materia sensibili, sed non recipit in definitione materiam sensibilem; sicut curvum, rectum et huiusmodi, licet habeant esse in materia et sint de numero non separabilium quantum ad esse, tamen mathematicus non determinat sibi materiam sensibilem; cuius ratio est quia res aliquae sunt sensibiles per qualitatem,1 quantitates autem praeexistunt qualitatibus, unde mathematicus concernit solum quod quantitatis est absolute, non determinans hanc vel illam materiam.
Another kind consists of those who, though they consider things that have their being in sensible matter, do not include such matter in their definitions; for example, the curved, the straight, and so on, although they have being in matter and are of the number of non-separable things as regard their being, still the mathematician does not determine a sensible matter for them. The reason is that certain things are sensible through their quality, and quantities exist prior to the qualities, so the mathematician is solely concerned with what belongs to quantity in an absolute way, one not determining this or that matter.
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Aliud genus est quod quidem considerat illa quorum esse vel non est in materia omnino vel quorum esse potest esse sine materia; et hic est philosophus primus.
Finally, the third kind contemplates things whose existence is either completely independent of matter or can be without matter. This is the first philosopher.
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29. Et notandum quod tota ratio divisionis philosophiae sumitur secundum definitiones et modos definiendi. Cuius ratio est quia definitio est principium demonstrationis rerum, res autem definiuntur per essentialia, unde diversae definitiones rerum diversa principia essentialia demonstrant, ex quibus una scientia differt ab alia.
29. Note that this division of philosophy is based on definition and the modes of defining. The reason is that definition is the principle of the demonstration of things, but things are defined through their essentials, so diverse definitions of things demonstrate diverse essential principles; and due to this one science differs from another.
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30. Consequenter cum dicit: sed redeundum est etc., quia videbatur fecisse quasdam digressiones ex hoc quod institit ad inquisitionem definitionum, reducit se ad materiam propriam dicens quod redeundum est ad materiam propriam unde est sermo habitus, scilicet quod passiones animae ut furor, timor et huiusmodi non sunt separabiles a physica materia animalium in quantum tales existunt, scilicet in quantum passiones, quae non sunt sine corpore, et non sunt sicut linea et planum, id est superficies, quae ratione possunt separari a naturali materia; si ergo ita est, ad naturalem spectat consideratio earum et etiam animae, sicut supra dictum est. De qua, scilicet de anima, intendentes ad praesens necesse est accipere opiniones antiquorum quicumque sint qui aliquid enuntiaverunt de ipsa; et hoc quidem ad duo erit utile,
30. Then, at but we must return (403b16), because he seemed to have made certain digressions from what he establishes regarding the inquiry about definitions, he brings himself back to the proper matter, saying, we must return to the proper matter from where the discussion stood—namely, that passions of the soul, like fury, fear, and so forth are not separable from the physical material of animals inasmuch as they exist in this way, that is, as passions, which do not exist without the body, and they are not like the line and the plane, that is, the surface, which can be separated in account from natural matter. If this is the case, then the contemplation of these things and even of the soul itself looks to the student of nature, as has been said. And concerning this, that is, the soul, it is necessary, at our present stage, to take up any opinions of the ancients who have spoken about this. This will be useful in two ways.
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primo quia illud quod bene dictum est ab eis accipiemus in adiutorium nostrum,
First, we shall take up as an aid what has been well said by them.
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secundo quia illud quod male enuntiatum est cavebimus.
Second, we shall be put on our guard against what is badly stated.
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L. 3 (Α.2, 403b24–404b8)Democritus, the Pythagoreans, and Anaxagoras
Motu et sensu animam fuisse cognitam a philosophis dicit; et illorum affert sententias ac reprobat, qui se animam ex motu cognovisse existimarunt
Democritus, the Pythagoreans, and Anaxagoras
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Principium autem quaestionis apponere quae maxime videntur ipsi inesse secundum naturam. Animatum igitur ab inanimato in duobus maxime differre videtur, motu et sensu. Accepimus autem et a progenitoribus fere duo haec de anima.
Our inquiry must begin with a statement of what seems most to belong by nature to the soul. The ensouled being would appear to differ from the non-souled being mostly in two respects: by motion and by sensation. And these two notions are roughly what our predecessors have handed down to us concerning the soul.
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Dicunt enim quidam et maxime et primo animam esse id quod est movens. Existimantes autem quod non movetur, ipsum non contingere movere alterum, eorum quae moventur aliquid animam sic arbitrati sunt esse.
For some say that the soul is principally and primarily what is moving. Holding that what is not itself in motion cannot move anything else, they thought that the soul in this way is one of the things that move.
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Unde Democritus quidem ignem quendam aut calorem dicit esse ipsam. Infinitis enim existentibus figuris et atomis, quae speciei rotunde ignem et animam dicit, ut in aere motae decisiones, quae videntur per portas in radiis, quarum omne semen elementa dicit Democritus totius nature.
Hence Democritus said it was a kind of fire or heat. For there exist an infinity of shapes and atoms, and those of spherical form are, he said, fire and soul, like the tiny motes in the air seen in the rays of the sun in doorways, and all the seeds of these, he said, are the elements of all nature.
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Similiter autem et Leucippus. Horum autem spherica animam propter id quod maxime possunt per omne penetrare huiusmodi figurae et movere reliqua cum moveantur et ipsa, arbitrantes animam esse efficiens animalibus motum. Unde et vivendi terminum esse respirationem.
Leucippus had a similar opinion. Those round in shape are the soul because such shapes are most able to penetrate everywhere and to move things when they themselves also move; they are thinking that the soul is effecting the movement within the animals. This is also why breathing is coterminous with living.
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Constringente enim eo quod continet corpora et extrudente figurarum praebentes animalibus motum, ex eo quod non est ipsas quiescere nullatenus, auxilium fieri deforis ingredientibus aliis huiusmodi in respirando; prohibere enim has et quae insunt animalibus disgregari simul prohibentes constringens et comprimens; et vivere autem quandiu possunt hoc facere.
For that which envelops all bodies expels by compression the shapes within, thus causing movement in animals, for these atoms are never at rest. A reinforcement must come therefore, he said, from things without by their entering in through respiration; for they prevent from dispersal those that are within the animals, and they simultaneously resist the constraining and compressing environment; and they live so long as they can do this.
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Videtur autem et a Pythagoricis dictum eandem habere intelligentiam. Dixerunt enim quidam ipsorum animam esse quae sunt in aere decisiones. Alii autem has movens. De his autem dictum est propter id quod continue videntur moveri, et si sit tranquillitas nimia.
The teaching of the Pythagoreans seems to mean much the same. For some of these said the soul is the particles in the air; others said it is what sets these in motion. And these are spoken of because they seem to be always moving, even if there is great tranquility.
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In idem autem feruntur et quicumque dicunt animam esse quod se ipsum movens. Videntur autem hi omnes existimasse motum maxime proprium esse animae et alia quidem omnia moveri propter animam, ipsam autem a se ipsa, propter nihil videre movens quod non et ipsum moveatur.
All who say that the soul is a thing that moves itself tend in the same direction. But all seem to hold that movement is what is most proper to the soul, and accordingly, that all things are in motion on account of the soul, but the soul moves by itself on its own account, because one sees nothing moving other things that is not itself moving.
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Similiter autem et Anaxagoras animam dicit esse moventem, et si aliquis alius dixit quod omne movet intellectus, non tamen penitus sicut Democritus.
Anaxagoras likewise said that the soul is a mover, as also did anyone else who held that intellect moves all things. But his view is not at all like Democritus’s view.
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Ille quidem enim simpliciter dicit idem esse animam et intellectum. Verum enim esse quod videtur. Unde bene facere Homerum quod Hector iacet aliud sapiens. Non itaque utitur intellectu tamquam potentia quadam quae est circa veritatem, sed idem dicit animam et intellectum.
For he asserts that intellect and soul are simply the same thing. For the true is what appears; this is why Homer aptly says of Hector that he lay ‘other-minded’. He does not use ‘intellect’ to denote a power that is concerned with the truth, but says that the soul and the intellect are the same thing.
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Anaxagoras autem minus certificat de ipsa. Multotiens quidem enim causam eius quod bene et recte, dicit intellectum, alibi autem intellectum hunc esse animam. In omnibus enim ipsum inesse animalibus, magnis et parvis et honorabilibus et inhonorabilibus.
But Anaxagoras is less definite about this. For he often says that the cause of being right or good is intellect, but in some places he says that this intellect is the soul. For it is in all animals, great and small, noble and base.
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Non videtur autem secundum prudentiam dictus intellectus omnibus similiter inesse animalibus, sed neque omnibus hominibus.
It does not seem, however, that there exists intellect, in the sense of prudence, alike in all animals, nor even in all men.
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Quicumque quidem igitur in moveri animatum aspexerunt, hi quod maxime motivum opinati sunt animam esse.
All those, therefore, who have regarded the ensouled from the point of view of movement have held soul to be what most causes movement.
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31. Principium autem questionis etc. Supra posuit Philosophus prooemium in quo et intentionem suam et quid agendum et difficultatem huius operis ostendit; hic vero prosequitur tractatum secundum ordinem repromissum.
31. Our inquiry must begin (403b24). So much by way of introduction, in which the Philosopher has stated his aim, what must be treated, and the difficulty of the undertaking; this he now proceeds to carry out in the order already indicated.
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Dividitur autem tractatus iste in partes duas:
The whole treatise divides into two parts.
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primo enim tractat de natura animae secundum opinionem aliorum philosophorum;
In the first, the soul’s nature is discussed as other philosophers have regarded it;
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secundo vero secundum veritatem, et hoc in secundo libro.
but in the second, as it is in truth. The latter section begins at Book 2.
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Prima pars dividitur in partes duas:
The first part itself has two parts.
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primo enim narrat opiniones aliorum philosophorum de anima;
The former relates the opinions of other philosophers about the soul;
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secundo vero inquirit de opinionibus illis, ibi: considerandum autem etc.
the second, beginning at the first thing to be considered (405b31; [68]), examines them.
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Prima pars dividitur in duas:
The former part itself divides into two parts.
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primo enim ostendit ex quibus philosophi habuerunt viam ad investigandum de anima;
In the first, he shows the starting points of other philosophers in investigating the soul;
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secundo vero ostendit quomodo diversi devenerunt in diversas opiniones de anima, ibi: unde Democritus quidem.
in the second, starting at hence Democritus said (403b31; [34]), he shows how they severally came to hold their different opinions.
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32. Dicit ergo primo quod principium nostrae quaestionis, id est inquisitionis, est apponere omnia quae secundum naturam videntur inesse animae. Circa quod sciendum est quod, quando invenimus aliqua duo differre secundum aliquid manifestum et secundum aliquid immanifestum, certum est quod secundum illud quod est manifestum venimus in notitiam illius quod est immanifestum. Et hunc modum tenuerunt philosophi ad inveniendum naturam de anima. Animata enim ab inanimatis differunt per hoc quod animata habent animam, inanimata vero non; sed quia natura animae erat immanifesta et non poterat investigari nisi per aliqua manifesta in quibus differunt animata ab inanimatis, invenerunt illa et secundum illa conati sunt devenire in cognitionem naturae animae.
32. First of all, then, he says that to start off our inquiry, we must gather together everything that seems most to belong by nature to the soul (403b24). As to this, we should note that when we find things differing both by a clear difference and by an unclear difference, it is certain that we come to know what is unclear by what is clear. This was the method used by the philosophers for discovering the nature of the soul. For ensouled things differ from non-souled in having souls; but because the nature of the soul was not evident and could not be investigated except by way of certain more obvious things that differentiate ensouled from non-souled things, the philosophers first took these more evident characteristics and tried, through them, to come to knowledge of the soul’s nature.
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Illa autem manifesta in quibus animata differunt ab inanimatis sunt duo, scilicet sentire et moveri. Nam animata videntur differre ab inanimatis maxime, et motu, ut scilicet moveant se ipsa, et sensu, seu cognitione. Unde credebant quod quando scirent principia istorum duorum, scirent quid est anima; unde laboraverunt causam motus et sensus scire, ut per hoc scirent naturam animae, quia credebant quod id quod est causa motus et sensus, esset anima. Et in hoc omnes antiqui philosophi conveniebant.
These evident notes are two: sensation and movement. For ensouled things seem to differ from non-souled ones mostly by motion, in that they move themselves, and by sensation, or knowledge. So the ancients thought that if they could discover the principles of these two things they would know what the soul is; hence they labored to discern the cause of movement and sensation so that thereby they might know the nature of the soul; for they believed that what is the cause of motion and sensation would be the soul. And in this all the ancient philosophers agreed.
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Sed ex hoc antiqui in diversas opiniones divisi sunt: nam aliqui conati sunt devenire in cognitionem animae per motum, aliqui vero per sensum,
But starting from here also the ancients became divided in their opinions; for some tried to arrive at knowledge of the soul by way of movement, and others, by way of sensation.
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33. et ideo cum dicit: dicunt enim quidam etc., ostendit horum diversitatem,
33. Hence at for some say (403b28), he states these differences:
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et primo de illis qui inquirebant naturam animae a motu;
and first, of those who started their inquiry from movement;
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secundo de illis qui inquirebant eam a cognitione seu sensu, ibi: quicumque autem ad cognoscere et sentire etc.
second, at all who have considered (404b8; [43]), of those who started from knowledge or sensation;
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Tertio eorum qui inquirebant naturam eius ex utroque, ibi, quoniam autem et motivum.
and third, at but since the soul (404b27; [52]), of those who started from both.
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Circa primum sciendum est quod illis qui inquisierunt animae naturam a motu erat unum commune, scilicet quod, si moventur animata, quod anima sit movens. Et huius ratio est quia existimabant quod illud quod non movetur non contingit movere alterum, id est quod nihil movet nisi moveatur; si ergo anima movet animata et nihil movet alterum nisi moveatur et ipsum, manifestum est quod anima maxime movetur; et hoc est propter quod antiqui naturales arbitrati sunt animam esse eorum quae moventur.
With regard to the first group, we should note that for those who sought the soul’s nature from motion there was one principle in common, namely, that if ensouled things are moving things, the soul must be moving. They assumed this because they thought that what is not itself in motion cannot move anything else; that is, nothing moves a thing unless it is itself moved. So if the soul moves the ensouled and nothing moves another unless it too is moving, then clearly the soul is moving most of all. It was this that led the early students of nature to judge the soul as one of the things that move.
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Sed ex hoc etiam diversae opiniones provenerunt,
But about this also different opinions arose.
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34. et ideo cum dicit: unde Democritus etc., ponit primo opinionem Democriti de anima dicens unde Democritus, quidam scilicet antiquus philosophus qui excogitans illud quod maxime movetur esse naturam animae et quia quod maxime movetur videtur esse de natura ignis, ideo dicit ipsam animam esse ignem quemdam aut calorem. Et opinio sua fuit talis. Ipse enim nihil ponebat esse in rerum natura nisi sensibile et corporale et volebat quod principia omnium rerum sint corpora indivisibilia et infinita quae vocabat atomos, quae quidem dixit esse unius naturae sed differre ab invicem figura, positione et ordine, licet hic ponat tantum de figura, quia hic solum differentia quae est secundum figuram necessaria est; et ista differentia quae est secundum figuram est quod quaedam erant rotunda, quaedam quadrata, quaedam pyramidalia et huiusmodi; ponebat etiam haec esse mobilia et numquam quiescentia et ex concursu ipsorum atomorum casu esse mundum factum; et quod haec indivisibilia corpora sint mobilia, dabat exemplum de decisionibus quae moventur in aere etiam si nulla tempestas sit, sicut apparet per portas in radiis solis; unde, cum ista sint multo minora quia sunt indivisibilia, illae vero quae apparent in radiis decisiones sunt divisibiles, manifeste apparet quod sint maxime mobilia; et quia inter alias figuras, figura rotunda est magis apta ad motum, cum non habeat angulos et non impediatur a motu, et quia credebant animam maxime moveri ex eo quod arbitrati sunt animam efficere motum animalibus, ideo inter ista infinita corpora illa quae erant [inter illa] rotunda corpora dicebat esse animam.
34. When, therefore, he says, hence Democritus (403b31), Aristotle states first of all the view of Democritus, one of the early philosophers, who, thinking that the soul by nature was in a state of maximum movement, which state seems natural to fire, said that the soul was a kind of fire or heat. Such was his view. For he did not admit the existence of anything in nature except what is sensible and corporeal; and the first principles of all things, he said, are indivisible bodies, infinite in number, which he called atoms. These atoms, he said, are all the same by nature, differing from each other only in shape, position, and arrangement (though here, only the difference of shape is alluded to, as being the only necessary one; this consists in some being round, some square, some pyramids, and so on). He also maintained that the atoms were mobile and never ceased moving and that the world had come into being through their fortuitous coming together. And to illustrate the mobility of these bodies, he took the example of the particles that move in the air even when no wind blows, as we can see when rays of the sun are in doorways. Since the atoms, being indivisible, are much smaller than such particles, they must obviously be extremely mobile. And because the spherical is, of all shapes, the one best suited for movement—having no angles to impede it—and since the soul, as the cause of movement in living, was thought to have maximum mobility, Democritus concluded that among these infinitely numerous bodies, the spherical ones were the soul.
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35. Huius etiam opinionis fuit Leucippus, qui fuit socius eius. Et ad hoc habebat unum signum, quod voluit Democritus terminum vitae, id est rationem, consistere in respiratione, licet insufficienter, quia non omnia viva respirant. Quae quidem respiratio necessaria erat, secundum eum, quia corpora rotunda implent corpus, cum sint causa motus in corpore animali secundum eum, et sunt in continuo motu et eo quod continet corpora nostra, scilicet aere, constringente et extrudente, id est exterius mittente, illas de numero figurarum quae sunt praebentes animalibus motum ex eo quod nullo modo quiescunt, ne forte, eis omnino expulsis a corporibus nostris, deficerent corpora, ideo necessaria est respiratio per quam et intromittantur alia corpora et ea quae sunt intus ab istis quae per respirationem intrant impediantur ab exitu; et tamdiu dixit vivere animalia quamdiu possunt hoc facere, scilicet respirare. Et vis huius signi est quia, cum respiratio ex hoc dicatur esse ratio vitae quod continet ipsa corpora rotunda in corporibus animalium et immittit etiam ea intus ne propter exeuntia corpora quae continue moventur deficiat corpus animalis, manifestum est quod ipsa corpora sint anima, quae quidem corpora voluit Democritus esse de natura ignis et ex eis causari calorem.
35. Leucippus, a companion of Democritus, held the same opinion. And Democritus thought the following was a sign of its truth. He maintained that respiration is coterminous with, or essential to, life (a short-sighted view, since not all living things breathe), and that respiration is necessary because the body is full of small ever-moving spherical particles (the cause, as he thought, of all movement in animal bodies) and that the surrounding air compresses what it envelops, that is, our bodies, and expels, that is, thrusts out of them, those particles which are so shaped as to cause movement in animals, being never at rest themselves. Lest, therefore, our bodies should decay with the loss of all these particles, he said that respiration is necessary, whereby fresh particles may be brought in and those already within prevented from leaving by those that inhaling brings in. And he said that animals can live so long as they can do this, that is, as long as they can breathe. The point of the argument is that if breathing is called the cause of life because it keeps the spherical particles inside the animal body and also introduces fresh ones lest the body should decay through loss of particles by movement, then it is clearly implied that the particles are the soul itself. They are indeed the same particles that Democritus said were fiery by nature and the cause of heat.
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36. Secundo cum dicit: videtur autem et a Pythagoricis dictum etc., ponit opinionem quorumdam Pythagoricorum quae similis erat opinioni Democriti. Nam illud quod Pythagorici dicunt de anima eamdem habet intelligentiam cum eo quod dicit [Unde] Democritus, licet non Pythagorici in hanc sententiam non conveniant.
36. Next, at the teaching of the Pythagoreans (404a16), Aristotle mentions a view of certain Pythagoreans, which resembles that of Democritus; for their statement and his seem to mean much the same, although the Pythagoreans themselves do not all agree.
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Nam quidam ipsorum convenientes cum Democrito dixerunt animam esse decisiones quae sunt in aere, id est corpora indivisibilia et infinita, sicut Democritus dicebat;
Some of them, agreeing with Democritus, said that atoms in the air, that is, indivisible, infinitely numerous particles, were the soul.
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alii vero ex ipsis [philosophis] non dixerunt ipsa corpora indivisibilia et mobilia esse animam, sed illam virtutem quae movet ea corpora, animam dicebant. Et huius opinionis fuit quidam Archelaus philosophus, magister Socratis, ut Augustinus narrat in libro De civitate Dei. Et ratio horum, scilicet quare dicebant huiusmodi corpora esse animam, dicta est, quia, sicut iam patet, volebant quod illud quod maxime movetur est anima, unde propter hoc quod haec corpora continue moveri videbantur, sicut apparet in aere in quo moventur etiam si sit tranquillitas, dicebant ista corpora esse animam.
Others, however, of the same school, said that the soul was rather the force that moved those particles. Of this opinion was a certain Archelaus, the master of Socrates, as Augustine remarks in the City of God.1 The reason why the soul has been thus identified with these particles has been already given—namely, that as the soul was regarded as being especially mobile, and as those particles seem to be always moving (even when the air is tranquil), they identified the one with the other.
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37. Consequenter cum dicit: in idem autem feruntur etc., reducit in quamdam summam opinionem plurium philosophorum de anima ad has opiniones, dicens quod omnes illi qui definientes animam a motu dixerunt ipsam esse illud quod se ipsum movet, feruntur in idem, id est in eamdem intelligentiam cum praedictis. Omnes enim concordant in hoc et communiter videntur existimasse motum maxime et praecipue esse proprium animae; et quidquid movetur, movetur ab anima, ipsam vero animam moveri a se ipsa. Et ratio horum, sicut iam tactum est, erat quia communiter opinati sunt quod nihil movet alterum nisi moveatur et ipsum; unde, cum anima moveat alia, credebant animam maxime et praecipue moveri.
37. Then, at all who say (404a20), he summarizes the views of a number of philosophers, saying that all who have defined the soul in terms of movement and called it that which moves itself, tend in the same direction, that is, the same as those mentioned already. All these seem to hold that movement is what is most proper to and the chief characteristic of the soul: all things being moved by the soul, and the soul moved by itself on its own account. The reason for this was, as has been noted, that they all thought that only what was itself moved could move other things. Since the soul moves other things, they thought the soul especially and principally was in motion.
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38. Tertio cum dicit: similiter autem et Anaxagoras animam etc., ponit opinionem Anaxagorae de natura animae.
38. In the third place, at Anaxagoras likewise (404a25), he states the view of Anaxagoras.
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Et primo ponit in quo Anaxagoras concordabat cum superioribus, dicens quod Anaxagoras et quicumque alius dixit quod intellectus movet omnia, dicit animam esse moventem omnia sicut et illi dicunt, sed in hoc differt, quia noluit quod omne quod movet alterum moveatur et ipsum, immo dixit esse unum intellectum separatum et immixtum qui alia moveat, eo non moto, et de natura huius dixit esse animam; unde ex hoc insurrexit error quorumdam qui dicerent animam esse de natura divina. Sic ergo patet in quo concordabat cum superioribus, in hoc scilicet quod dixit animam esse moventem, sed differebat in hoc quod dixit animam non moveri, cuius contrarium illi dicebant.
He first shows how this philosopher agrees with those already mentioned, saying that Anaxagoras, and anyone else who held that intellect moved all things, really agreed with them that the source of all movement was a soul. Anaxagoras, however, differed in that he denied that every mover was itself in motion; he maintained the existence of a pure and transcendent intellect which, motionless itself, moved all other things, and he maintained that the soul was of this nature too. (This view led some into the error of divinizing the soul.) Thus Anaxagoras agreed with the other philosophers in calling the soul a principle of movement, but he disagreed with them in saying that it was not itself moved (for they said the contrary).
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Differebat etiam a Democrito in acceptione intellectus,
And he also differed from Democritus in what he understood by “intellect.”
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39. et ideo cum dicit: ille quidem etc., ponit hanc differentiam.
39. When Aristotle therefore says, Democritus asserts (404a27), he states this last difference.
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Et primo ponit opinionem Democriti, dicens quod ille, scilicet Democritus, dixit simpliciter, id est ubique et universaliter, intellectum et animam esse idem.
First, he states Democritus’s opinion, saying that he (that is, Democritus) said that intellect and soul were simply, that is, everywhere and universally, the same thing.
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[Cuius ratio est quia Democritus credebat quod nihil esset in mundo nisi sensibilia, et sicut nihil erat in mundo nisi sensibilia, ita dicebat quod nulla vis apprehensiva erat in anima nisi sensitiva. Unde fuit huius opinionis quod nulla veritas determinate haberetur de rebus et quod nihil determinate cognoscitur, sed quidquid apparet, verum est, et non magis illud quod cogitat unus de re aliqua quam illud quod cogitat alius de eadem re eodem tempore verum esse; et ex hoc sequebatur quod poneret contraria simul esse vera.]
Democritus said this because he held that only sensible things exist in the real world, and that just as nothing but sensible things exist in the world, so too, he said no cognitive power exists in the soul except the sense power. From this, he inferred that no truth about things was determinately attainable, and that nothing could be determinately known; rather, whatever appears is true, and what one man thought about anything is not more true than what another man thought about the same thing at the same time. In consequence, he maintained that contraries would be both true at the same time.
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Cuius ratio est quia ipse, ut dictum est, non utebatur intellectu qui est circa veritatem, id est virtute intellectiva qua anima intelligit intelligibilia, sed solum vi sensitiva, et quod nihil cognosceretur nisi sensibile, cum nihil poneret in rerum natura nisi sensibile; unde, cum sensibilia sint in continuo motu et fluxu, opinatus est nullam veritatem determinatam esse in rebus;
And this is because, as we have said, he did not use “intellect” as what is concerned with the truth, that is, as an intellectual power by which the soul understands intelligible objects, but as a mere sense power. Only the sensible, he thought, may be known, since only the sensible exists in the nature of things. And because sensible things are continually in motion and flux, he thought that there is no determinate truth in things.
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et quia non pervenit ad hoc quod cognosceret intellectum esse potentiam quamdam quae est circa veritatem, id est cuius obiectum est ipsum verum, et excedit omnes alias potentias animae, sed accepit tantum potentias animae sensitivas, ideo communiter et indifferenter idem dicit animam et intellectum. Quem quidem intellectum dicit transmutari secundum hominis transmutationem. Et propter hoc commendat Homerum qui dixit, quod Hector iacet aliud sapiens, id est quod secundum sui mutationem mutatus est intellectus eius, dum aliud saperet victus et aliud invictus.
Never attaining to an understanding of the intellect as a power concerned with the truth, that is, that whose object is the true itself and that exceeds all the other powers of the soul, admitting only the soul’s powers of sense, he says that the soul and the intellect are the same universally and without any distinction. This intellect changed, he said, as the man changed. Hence his approval of Homer’s phrase, Hector lies other-minded, that is, Hector’s mind changed insofar as he changed; for he thought one thing as conqueror, another as conquered.
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40. Secundo cum dicit: Anaxagoras autem etc., ostendit in quo differebat Anaxagoras a Democrito.
40. Next, at Anaxagoras is less definite (404b1), he shows how Anaxagoras differed from Democritus.
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Et circa hoc duo facit:
About this he does two things:
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primo ponit opinionem Anaxagorae;
first, stating the former’s opinion;
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secundo reprobat eam, ibi: non videtur autem etc.
second, at it does not seem (404b5; [41]), criticizing it.
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Dicit ergo primo quod Anaxagoras loquitur de anima magis dubie et minus certificat de ipsa. Nam ipse Anaxagoras multociens dicit intellectum esse causam eius quod est bene operari, id est bonae operationis; alibi vero, id est in aliis locis, dicit hunc intellectum, scilicet qui est causa bonae operationis, et animam esse idem.
First, then, he observes that Anaxagoras spoke with less certainty and was less definite about this. For he often said that intellect was the cause of acting well, or good action, while in some places, he also says this intellect is the cause of good action and is the same thing as the soul.
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Et hoc apparet quia constat quod anima inest omnibus animalibus tam vilibus quam honorabilibus et tam magnis quam parvis; unde cum in omnibus his dicat intellectum esse, manifestum est quod idem dicit intellectum et animam.
And this is obvious, for it is certain that soul is found in all animals, the lower as well as the noble, the small as well as the great; whence, since Anaxagoras said that intellect was in all of them, clearly he identifies soul and intellect.
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41. Secundo cum dicit: non videtur autem etc., ostendit contrarietatem esse in acceptione intellectus secundum Anaxagoram, scilicet hoc quod aliquando dicit intellectum non esse idem cum anima, aliquando vero dicit ipsum et animam esse idem, sunt contrariae et non possunt simul stare.
41. Second, at it does not seem (404b5), he shows the inconsistency of Anaxagoras’s use of the term “intellect.” For sometimes Anaxagoras distinguishes between soul and intellect, but sometimes also he identifies them. These are contrary and cannot both stand simultaneously.
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Et hoc probat tali ratione: constat quod bene operari est proprium intellectus secundum prudentiam perfecti, quia bene operari pertinet ad prudentiam; si ergo idem esset intellectus qui est causa bonae operationis [idem] cum anima, sequeretur quod intellectus prudens esset idem cum anima; sed hoc est falsum, quia anima inest omnibus animalibus, intellectus autem secundum prudentiam dictus non videtur inesse non solum omnibus animalibus, sed nec omnibus hominibus; ergo non est idem cum anima.
And this he proceeds to show with this argument: it is certain that to act well is proper to intellect as perfected by prudence, since to act well pertains to prudence. If, then, the intellect, which causes good action, is the same as the soul, it would follow that the prudent intellect would be the same as the soul; but this is false because, while all animals have souls, intellect in the sense of prudence seems not to be present not merely in all animals, but not even in all men. Therefore it is not the same as the soul.
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42. Deinde cum dicit: quicumque quidem igitur, concludit quod omnes illi qui consideraverunt animam secundum motum, id est secundum illud quod est moveri a se ipso, hi opinati sunt animam esse illud quod maxime motivum, sicut patet in opinionibus iam dictis.
42. Lastly, at all those, therefore (404b7), he states that all who have regarded the soul from the standpoint of movement, that is, as self-movers, thought that the soul is what most causes movement, as the above-mentioned opinions show.
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L. 4 (Α.2, 404b8–404b29)Empedocles, Plato, and soul as self-moving number
Empedoclis et Platonis sententias exponit, qui ex parte cognitionis animam cognoverunt; quod item fuere nonnulli qui animam esse numerum seipsum moventem definierunt
Empedocles, Plato, and soul as self-moving number
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Quicumque autem ad cognoscere et sentire ea quae sunt, isti dicunt animam principia, alii quidem plura facientes, haec, alii vero unum, hoc.
All who have considered the soul as knowing and sensing things that exist identify it with the principles, some making it several, others one.
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Sicut Empedocles quidem ex elementis omnibus, esse autem et unumquodque horum animam, dicens sic:
Empedocles, for instance, says that it is composed of all elements, and that each of these is a soul, saying:
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Terram quidem terra cognoscimus, ethere ethera, aquam autem aqua, sed igne ignem manifestum est, concordia autem concordiam, discordiam discordia tristi.
As by earth we know earth, by ether, ether, / By water, water, but by fire, it is clear, fire / Concord by concord, discord by sad discord.
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Eodem autem modo et Plato in Timaeo animam facit ex elementis. Cognosci enim simile simili; res autem ex principiis esse.
In the same way, Plato in the Timaeus constitutes the soul from the elements. For like is known by like, and things are made up of their principles.
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Similiter autem et in his quae sunt de philosophia dicta, determinatum est. Ipsum quidem animal ex ipsa unius idea et ex prima longitudine et latitudine et altitudine, alia autem simili modo.
In the things said about philosophy, he likewise determined that an animal itself is compounded of the very idea of the one, together with the primary length and depth and breadth, other things existing in the same manner.
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Adhuc autem et aliter intellectum quidem unum, scientiam autem duo (singulariter enim ad unum), plani autem numerum opinionem, sensum vero eum qui firmi. Numeri quidem enim species et principia entium dicebantur. Sunt autem ex elementis. Iudicantur autem res aliae quidem intellectu, aliae vero scientia, aliae autem opinione, aliae vero sensu; species autem numeri hi rerum.
Again, rather differently, he says that intellect is the one, knowledge is the two (for this proceeds as one to one), and the number of the plane is opinion, and that of the solid is sensation. For numbers were said to be the species and principles of beings and are themselves constituted from elements. Some things are discerned by understanding, some by science, some by opinion, some by sensation. But these same numbers are the species of things.
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Quoniam autem et motivum videbatur anima esse et cognoscitivum, sic quidam complexi sunt ex utrisque, enuntiantes animam esse numerum moventem se ipsum.
But since the soul seems to be both a moving and a knowing principle, some have joined the two aspects, stating that the soul is a self-moving number.
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43. Quicumque autem ad cognoscere etc. Superius ostendit Philosophus quomodo aliqui venerunt in cognitionem animae per motum; hic vero ostendit quomodo aliqui venerunt in cognitionem animae per sensum seu cognitionem. Circa hoc autem duo facit:
43. All who have considered the soul (404b8). Having shown how some have approached a knowledge of soul through movement, the Philosopher now turns to how some came to it by way of sensation or knowledge. He does this in two stages.
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primo enim ostendit in quo convenerunt philosophi qui consideraverunt animam ex sensu;
First, he shows where the philosophers who considered the soul by way of sensation were in agreement;
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secundo vero in quo differunt, ibi: sicut Empedocles quidem etc.
second, at Empedocles, for instance (404b11; [45]), where they disagreed.
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Dicit ergo primo quod omnes quicumque venerunt in cognitionem animae quantum ad cognoscere et sentire, id est per cognitionem et sensum, in hoc conveniebant quia dicebant animam esse ex principiis, quae quidem principia alii faciebant, id est ponebant, esse plura, alii vero unum tantum.
He begins then by saying that all who came to knowledge of the soul through its knowing and sensing, that is, through knowledge and sensation, agreed in holding that the soul was composed of the principles of things; but some made, that is, posited, several principles, while others posited only one.
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Ad ponendum autem animam esse ex principiis constitutam, movebantur quia ipsi antiqui philosophi quasi ab ipsa veritate coacti somniabant quoquo modo veritatem. Veritas autem est quod cognitio fit per similitudinem rei cognitae in cognoscente; oportet enim quod res cognita aliquo modo sit in cognoscente.
Even the earliest philosophers themselves were moved to constitute the soul from the principles, as though compelled by the truth itself; they dreamed, as it were, of the truth. The truth, in fact, is that knowledge arises from a likeness of the thing known being in the knower; for the reality known must be in the knower somehow.
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Antiqui vero philosophi arbitrati sunt quod oporteret similitudinem rei cognitae esse in cognoscente secundum esse naturale et secundum idem esse quod habet in se ipsa; dicebant enim quod oportebat simile simili cognosci; unde, si anima cognoscit omnia, oportet quod habeat similitudinem omnium in se secundum naturale esse, sicut ipsi ponebant; nescierunt enim distinguere illum modum quo res est in intellectu seu in oculo et quo res est in se ipsa; unde, quia illa quae sunt de essentia rei sunt principia illius rei et qui cognoscit principia huiusmodi cognoscit ipsam rem, posuerunt quod ex quo anima cognoscit omnia, esset ex principiis rerum. Et hoc erat omnibus commune.
The early philosophers, however, thought that the likeness of the thing known exists in the knower according to its own natural existence, and according to the existence that it has in its very self. For they said that like must be known by like. If, then, the soul is to know all things, it must contain a likeness of all things according to their natural existence, as they asserted. For they did not think to distinguish the mode whereby a thing exists in the intellect or the eye from that which the thing has in its very self. Therefore, since whatever is of a thing’s essence is a constituent principle of that thing, and to know such principles is to know the thing itself, these philosophers maintained that the reason why the soul can know all things is that it is made up of the principles of all things. This theory was common to them all.
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44. Sed diversificati sunt secundum quod differebant in principiis quae ponebant; non enim omnes ponebant eadem principia, sed unus plura, alius unum, unus hoc, alius illa, et secundum hoc differunt in ponendo ex quibus principiis anima constituatur,
44. But they diverged insofar as they disagreed about the principles that they posited. For they did not all admit the same principles: one admitted many, another only one, and one this, and another that. Hence they disagreed also about the constituents of the soul.
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45. et ideo consequenter cum dicit: sicut Empedocles quidem etc., ponit quomodo differunt.
45. So, at Empedocles, for instance (404b11), Aristotle states these differences.
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Et primo ponit opinionem Empedoclis, dicens quod antiqui philosophi qui per sensum consideraverunt animam dicunt ipsam constare ex elementis et illi quidem qui unum faciunt principium, illud unum dicunt esse animam, et qui plura, ex illis eam componi, sicut Empedocles dicit animam esse ex omnibus elementis, et unumquodque horum dicit esse animam. Circa quod sciendum est quod Empedocles posuit sex principia, quatuor materialia, scilicet terram, aquam, aerem et ignem, et duo activa et passiva, scilicet litem et amicitiam; et ideo, ex quo ponebat animam ex principiis componi, dixit animam esse ex huiusmodi principiis quae ponebat, et sensum: secundum enim quod est ex terra, terram cognoscimus; secundum quod est ex aethere, id est ex aere, aerem, ex aqua vero aquam, sed et ignem ex igne manifestum est, et per concordiam cognoscimus concordiam et ex tristi discordia cognoscimus discordiam. Et ponit ibi tristi, quia Empedocles metrice composuit libros suos.
He gives first the opinion of Empedocles, saying that the early philosophers who contemplated the soul by way of sensation thought it was composed of the elements. Those who admitted only one principle said that this one thing is the soul; and those who admitted many said that the soul is made up of many; Empedocles, for instance, held that the soul was composed of all the elements, and that each of these is a soul. Note that Empedocles admitted six principles: four material, namely, earth, water, fire, and air; and two active and passive principles, namely, strife and friendship. And since he asserted that the soul is composed of principles, he said the soul and the senses are composed of such principles as he posits. Thus, as composed of earth, we know earth; as composed of ether (that is, of air), we know air; as composed of water, we know water; but as composed of fire, it is clear, we know fire; and through concord, we know concord, and from sad discord, we know discord. Sad comes in here because Empedocles wrote his books in verse.
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46. Secundo cum dicit: eodem modo et Plato in Timaeo etc., ponit opinionem Platonis, dicens quod Plato etiam animam facit ex elementis, id est dicit animam ex principiis constitutam esse. Et quod hoc sit verum, scilicet quod Plato dicat animam compositam ex principiis rerum, probat per triplex dictum Platonis.
46. Next, when he says, in the same way Plato (404b16), Aristotle states the opinion of Plato, who also, he says, constitutes the soul from the elements, that is, says the soul is made up of the principles. And that this is true, that is, that Plato says the soul is composed of the principles of things, he shows from three statements of Plato.
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Primum est quod ipse dicit in Timaeo. Ibi enim dicit duo esse elementa seu principia rerum, scilicet idem et diversum; quaedam enim natura est quae semper eodem modo se habet et est simplex, sicut sunt immaterialia, et hanc vocat idem; quaedam vero natura est quae non semper eodem modo se habet sed transmutationem suscipit et divisionem, sicut sunt materialia, et hanc vocat diversum; et ex istis duobus, scilicet ex eodem et diverso, animam dicit esse compositam, non quod ista duo sint in anima ut partes, sed quod sint quasi media secundum quod natura rationalis animae superioribus et omnino immaterialibus sit inferior et deterior, et materialibus et inferioribus sit nobilior et superior.
The first is from the Timaeus, where Plato says that there are two elements or principles of things: the same and the other.1 For there is a certain nature that is simple and always remains the same, as are immaterial things; and this nature, he calls “the same.” And there is another nature that does not always remain the same but undergoes change and division, as do material things; and this nature, he calls “the other.” And it is of these two principles, of the same and the other, that the soul, he says, is composed; not that the two are in the soul as its parts, but rather, as it is a mean, insofar as the nature of the rational soul is lower and less noble than the higher and purely immaterial substances, but it is higher and nobler than material and lower things.
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47. Et ratio huius erat quia, sicut dictum est, simile cognoscitur simili; unde si anima cognosceret omnia et idem et diversum sunt principia, ponebat animam esse ex istis duobus compositam eo modo quo dictum est, ut in quantum habet de natura identitatis, cognosceret ea quae ponit idem, in quantum vero de natura eorum quae vocat diversum, cognosceret diversum, scilicet materialia. Unde et hac cognitione utitur: nam quando colligit genera et species, tunc dicit eam repraesentare idem seu identitatem, quando vero differentias et accidentia assumit, alteritatem adinvenit. Sic ergo patet quomodo Plato in Timaeo dicit animam ex principiis componi.
47. Now, this opinion rests on what was already mentioned, that like is known by like. For if the soul would know all things, and if the same and the other are the principles, he asserted that the soul must be constituted of these two in the way said, such that to the degree that it has the nature of sameness, it knew things that it asserts are the same, while to the degree that it has the nature of things that he calls “the other,” it knows the other, that is, material things. Hence also it uses this knowledge. For when it gathers things together under genera and species, then, said Plato, it manifests sameness or identity, but when it attends to accidents and differentiations, he finds in it difference. That is how Plato, in the Timaeus, understood the soul as made up of principles.
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48. Secundum dictum Platonis, per quod ostenditur quod dixit animam ex principiis esse, ponitur cum dicit: similiter autem et in his quae de philosophia, ubi ostendit animam esse ex principiis similiter. Circa quod sciendum est quod Plato posuit quod intelligibilia essent per se subsistentia et separata et essent semper in actu, et essent causa cognitionis et esse rebus sensibilibus (quod Aristoteles tamquam inconveniens volens evitare, coactus est ponere intellectum agentem); unde sequebatur ex positione Platonis quod secundum quod aliqua sunt abstracta, sic essent aliqua quae essent per se subsistentia et in actu; habemus autem duplicem modum abstractionis per intellectum: unum qui est a particularibus ad universalia, alium per quem abstrahimus mathematica a sensibilibus; et sic cogebatur ex hoc ponere tria subsistentia, scilicet sensibilia, mathematica et universalia, quae essent causa et quorum participatione res etiam sensibiles et mathematicae essent.
48. The second statement showing that this was Plato’s theory, Aristotle refers to when he says, in the things said about philosophy (404b18). Here the soul is represented as constituted from principles in the same way. Note, in this connection, that Plato took the objects known by the intellect to be things subsisting through themselves and separate, and that they were always in act, and that they were the cause of knowledge and of being for sensible things. (Aristotle, wanting to avoid this, as it was incongruous, was compelled to assert an agent intellect.) But from Plato’s position it followed that insofar as some things are abstract, so too, there are certain things that would be subsisting through themselves and actually. We have, however, abstractions in two ways: one is by proceeding from particulars to universals; and the other is that by which mathematical things are abstracted from sensible things. So Plato found himself obliged to posit three subsistent things: sensible things, mathematical things, and universals—these last being the cause, by participation, both of sensible realities and of mathematical ones.
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49. Item ponebat Plato numeros esse causam rerum (et hoc faciebat quia nescivit distinguere inter unum quod convertitur cum ente et unum quod est principium numeri prout est species quantitatis); ex quo sequebatur quod, cum universale separatum poneret causam rerum et numeros esse substantiam rerum, quod huiusmodi universalia essent ex numeris; dicebat enim quod principium omnium entium essent species et numerus specificus, quem vocabat specificum tamquam compositum ex speciebus; nam ipsum numerum reducebat tamquam in principia et elementa in unum et dualitatem; nam ex uno nihil procederet et ideo necessaria fuit ipsi uno aliqua subiecta natura a qua multitudo produceretur, et hanc vocavit dualitatem.
49. Plato also held that numbers were causes of things—and he did this because he did not know to distinguish the one that is convertible with being and the one that is the principle of the number insofar as it is a species of quantity. Hence, he asserted that such universals were of the nature of number, for the separated universal is the cause of things, and numbers are the substance of things. For he said that the principles of all beings were species and specific number, which he called specific in the sense of being constituted from species.1 For he traced number itself back to unity and duality as to its principles and elements; for, as nothing can proceed from one alone, there must be some nature underlying the one itself, due to which multiplicity proceeds; and this nature he called “duality.”
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50. Et secundum ordinem materialitatis ordinabat illa tria; quia enim sensibilia sunt magis materialia quam mathematica et universalia immaterialiora mathematicis, ideo primo posuit sensibilia supra quae posuit mathematica et supra haec universalia separata et ideas; quae differunt a mathematicis, quia in mathematicis in una specie sunt aliqua quae differunt secundum numerum, sed in ideis et substantiis separatis non inveniuntur aliqua unius speciei quae differant numero: unius enim speciei unam posuit ideam. Quas ideas dicit esse ex numeris et secundum numeros in eis esse rationes rerum sensibilium, quae quidem constant ex longitudine, latitudine et profunditate; et ideo dixit ideam longitudinis esse primam dualitatem: longitudo enim est ab uno ad unum, scilicet de puncto ad punctum; latitudinis autem primam trinitatem: nam figura triangularis est prima superficialium figurarum; profunditatis autem, quae continet longitudinem et latitudinem, ideam dixit esse primam quaternitatem: prima enim figura corporum est pyramis, quae in quatuor angulis consistit. Unde, cum Plato poneret animam sensibilem, posuit et animam separatam quae esset causa huius et hanc sicut alia separata et ideas dixit esse ex numeris, scilicet unitate et dualitate quae ponebat principia rerum.
50. Thus Plato ordered those three according to their order of materiality. As sensible things are more material than mathematical things are, and universals are more immaterial than mathematical things are, he placed sensible things first, and above them mathematicals, and above these the separate universals and ideas. Universals differ from mathematical objects in that the latter include numerical differences within the same species, whereas ideas and separated substances exhibit no numerical differences in the one species; there is but one idea for each species. These ideas, he said, are composed of numbers and are the accounts of sensible things according to the numbers within them, which accounts are composed of length, breadth and depth.1 Hence, he said that the idea of length is the primary duality, for length is from unit to unit, that is, from point to point; and that of breadth is the first trinity, for the triangle is the first of plane figures; and that of depth, which includes both length and breadth, is the first quaternity, for the first solid figure is the pyramid which is constructed of four angles. So too, since Plato posited a sensitive soul, he also posited a separated soul as its cause, and this, like the other separate things and ideas, he said is composed from numbers, that is, from the unity and duality that he asserted are the principles of things.
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51. Tertio cum dicit: adhuc autem et aliter etc., ponit tertium dictum Platonis, per quod apparet quod ipse dixerat animam compositam ex principiis. Plato enim posuit numeros, sicut dictum est, species et principia rerum; unde, cum loqueretur de anima, posuit eam secundum hoc venire in cognitionem entium quod erat composita ex principiis, scilicet ex numeris, et omnes operationes eius ab eis procedere.
51. Third, at again, rather differently (404b21), Aristotle alludes to the third statement of Plato to show that, for Plato, the soul was made up of the principles. For as we have said, it was Plato’s view that the species and principles of things are numbers; so when he came to treat of the soul, he based its knowledge of beings on its being composed of the principles (that is, of numbers), and all its activities come from them.
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Invenimus enim in anima diversas potentias ad apprehensionem entium, scilicet intellectum, scientiam, opinionem et sensum; dicit ergo animam habere intellectum et eius operationem ex idea unius quia scilicet est in ea natura unitatis: intellectus enim una apprehensione apprehendit unum; item, scientiam ex prima dualitate, scientia enim est ab uno ad unum, scilicet de principiis ad conclusionem; opinionem vero ex prima trinitate, opinio enim est de uno ad duo: est enim de principiis ad conclusionem cum formidine alterius et sic sunt ibi tria, principium et duae conclusiones, una conclusa et alia formidata; sensum autem habet anima a prima quaternitate, est enim quaternitas prima idea corporis, quod consistit ex quatuor angulis, ut dictum est, sensus autem corporum est.
Take, for instance, the soul’s diverse powers for apprehending beings: understanding, science, opinion, and sensation. Plato says, then, that the soul has an intellect and its activity due to the idea of the one;1 for it has the nature of unity, for by one apprehension the intellect apprehends one thing. Again, science comes from the first duality since science proceeds from one thing to one thing, that is, from principles to conclusions. And opinion from the first trinity, for opinion goes from one thing to two, that is, from principles to a conclusion accompanied by the fear of a different conclusion, so a triad is formed out of one principle and one conclusion admitted and one feared. Finally, sensation derives from the first quaternity, that is, from the first idea of a body, constructed (as we have said) from four angles; for bodies are the object of sensation.
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Cum ergo res omnes cognoscantur istis quatuor, scilicet intellectu, scientia, opinione et sensu, et has potentias dicit habere animam secundum quod participat naturam unitatis, dualitatis et ternarii et quaternarii, manifestum est quod dixit animam separatam, quam posuit ideam huius animae, compositam ex numeris, qui sunt principia et elementa rerum. Et sic patet quod Plato dixit animam compositam ex principiis.
Since, then, all things are known by these four, that is, understanding, science, opinion, and sensation, all of which powers, said Plato, are in the soul insofar as it participates in the nature of unity, duality, trinity, and quaternity, it obviously follows that the separated soul, which he called the idea of this particular soul, was constituted from numbers, which are the elements and principles of things. So much to show that Plato regarded the soul as made up of principles.
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52. Consequenter cum dicit: quoniam autem et motivum etc., ponit quod quidam philosophi fuerunt qui venerunt in cognitionem animae ex motu et sensu simul seu cognitione, dicens: quia anima videbatur esse motiva per se et cognoscitiva, complexi sunt ista duo et definierunt animam ex utrisque, scilicet motu et cognitione, dicentes quod anima est numerus movens se ipsum; per numerum quidem insinuantes potentiam cognoscitivam quia, secundum quod supra positum est, ex hoc dicebant animam habere cognitionem rerum quod participabat naturam numeri specifici, quod erat de opinione Platonis; per movere autem se ipsam insinuantes potentiam motivam in anima.
52. Next, at but since the soul seems to be both (404b27), Aristotle observes that some philosophers came to know something about the soul through movement and sensation (that is, knowledge) together. He says that, as the soul seemed to them to be both self-moving and cognitive, some have joined the two aspects, that is, motion and knowledge, in their definition and called the soul a self-moving number. “Number” refers to the cognitive power because they thought, in accordance with what has been said already, that the soul was able to know realities in virtue of its participating in the nature of a specific number (which was Plato’s opinion). “Self-moving” refers to the soul’s motive power.
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L. 5 (Α.2, 404b30–405b30)Soul as identified with the elements
Varias philosophorum opiniones adducit, qui animam ipsam unum aliquod sensibilium elementorum esse existimaverunt
Soul as identified with the elements
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Differunt autem de principiis quae et quot, maxime quidem corporea facientes incorporeis, his autem miscentes et ab utrisque principia enuntiantes. Differunt autem et circa multitudinem: hi quidem enim unum, illi vero plura dicunt. Consequenter autem his et animam assignant; motivum enim secundum naturam primorum existimaverunt, non irrationabiliter.
Opinions differ, however, as to the principles—what they are, and how many they are; and the difference is greatest between those who make these corporeal and those who make them incorporeal. But some, making it a mixture, have defined the principles in terms of both. They differ also as to the multitude: some positing one, others several. And they assign a soul to these principles accordingly. (For they, not unreasonably, assumed that what by nature causes movement is among the first things.)
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Unde quibusdam visum est ignem esse; et enim hic in partibus subtilissimus est et maxime elementorum incorporeum, adhuc autem moveturque et movet alia primo. Democritus autem dulcius dixit enuntians propter quid utrumque horum; animam quidem enim et intellectum idem, istud autem esse primorum et indivisibilium corporum, motivum autem propter subtilitatem partium et figuram; figurarum autem leviter mobilissimam sphaericam dicit; huiusmodi autem esse intellectum et ignem.
Hence some have held it to be fire; for this is the finest in its parts and the most incorporeal of the elements; moreover, it moves itself, being the first cause of movement in other things. Democritus said something which rather neatly gives the reason for either fact. He said that soul is the same thing as intellect, and that this is among the primary indivisible bodies and causes motion by the fineness of its parts and its shape. He says that the sphere is the most readily mobile of shapes, and that fire and intellect are such.
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Anaxagoras autem videtur quidem alterum dicere animam et intellectum, sicut diximus prius, utitur autem utrisque sicut una natura. Verumtamen intellectum ponit principium maxime omnium solumque dicit ipsum eorum quae sunt simplicem esse et immixtum et purum. Assignat autem utraque eidem principio, cognoscereque et movere, dicens intellectum movere omne.
Anaxagoras, however (as we said above), seems to speak of soul and intellect as diverse, yet he treats both as one nature. Nevertheless, he posits intellect as most of all the principle of all things, saying that among things that are simple, it alone is both unmixed and pure. He attributes, indeed, to the same principle both knowing and moving, saying that the intellect moves all things.
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Videtur autem Thales, ex quibus reminiscuntur, motivum aliquid animam opinari, si quidem dixit lapidem animam habere, quoniam ferrum movet.
Moreover, it seems that Thales, from what they recollect of him, was also of the opinion that the soul is a cause of motion—if it is a fact that he said that a stone has a soul because it moves iron.
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Dyogenes autem, sicut et alteri quidam, aerem, hunc opinans omnium subtilissimum esse et principium, et propter hoc cognoscere et movere animam, secundum quidem quod principium est et ex hoc reliqua, cognoscere, secundum vero quod subtilissimum est, motivum esse.
Now, Diogenes, like certain others, held that air is the finest of all things and is their principle, and because of this the soul knows and moves things. As a principle, it is cognitive of all else; and as the finest thing, it is able to move things.
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Eraclitus autem principium esse dicit si quidem vaporem ex quo alia constituit; et incorporalissimum autem et fluens semper. Quod vero movetur moto cognosci. In motu autem esse quae sunt et ille arbitratus est et multi.
Heraclitus, however, says that soul, as a principle, is some vapor of which it is constituted, since this is the least corporeal thing and is always flowing; and that any moving thing is known by its motion—he and many others holding that all things are in movement.
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Similiter autem his et Almeon opinari visus est de anima; dicit enim ipsam immortalem esse propter hoc quod assimilatur immortalibus, hoc autem inesse ipsi tamquam semper motae, moveri enim et divina omnia continue semper, lunam, solem, astra et totum caelum.
Alcmaeon seems to have held opinions on the soul similar to these. For he said it is immortal because it bears a resemblance to immortal beings. And this he attributed to it because it always moves; all divine things seem to be in motion continually and always—the sun, the moon, the stars, and the whole heaven.
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Magis autem rudium et aquam quidam enuntiaverunt, ut Hippus; suaderi enim visi sunt ex genitura, quoniam omnium humida est; et namque arguit sanguinem dicentes animam, quoniam genitura non est sanguis; hanc autem esse primam animam.
Some cruder thinkers, like Hippo, thought it is water. They seem to have been persuaded of this because semen is liquid in all animals. For he refutes those who say the soul is the blood, on the grounds that semen, which is the first soul, is not blood.
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Alii autem sanguinem, quemadmodum Critias, ipsum sentire animae magis proprium opinantes, hoc autem inesse propter naturam sanguinis.
Others, such as Critias, held that it is blood; that sensation itself is most proper to the soul; and that it is due to the nature of blood that this power is in it.
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Omnia enim elementa iudicem acceperunt, praeter terram; hanc autem nulli protulerunt, nisi si aliquis dixit ipsam ex omnibus elementis esse aut omnia.
For opinions have been given in favor of every element besides earth, which no one has proposed, except whoever may have said it is derived from, or is, all the elements.
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Diffiniunt autem omnes animam tribus ut est dicere, motu, sensu, incorporeo; horum autem unumquodque reducitur ad principia. Unde et in cognoscendo diffinientes ipsam, aut elementum aut ex elementis faciunt, dicentes similiter invicem praeter unum: dicunt enim simile cognosci simili. Quoniam enim anima omnia cognoscit, constituunt eam ex omnibus principiis. Quicumque quidem igitur unam aliquam dicunt causam et elementum unum, et animam unum ponunt, ut ignem aut aerem; plura vero dicentes principia, et animam plura dicunt.
All, taken together, define soul, we may say, by three things: by movement, by sensation, and by immateriality; and each of these is traced back to the principles. Hence, in defining it as knowing, they make it either an element or made from elements, one saying much the same as another (with a single exception). For they say that like is known by like. For because the soul knows all things, they constitute it from all principles. Whoever says that there is one cause and one element also asserts that the soul is one thing—fire or air, for example; others, saying that there are several principles, say that the soul is multiple.
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Anaxagoras autem solus impassibilem dicit intellectum, et commune nihil nulli aliorum habere. Huiusmodi autem cum sit, quomodo cognoscit et propter quam causam, neque ille dixit neque ex his que dicta sunt conspicuum est.
But Anaxagoras alone says that intellect cannot be acted upon and has nothing in common with other things. But, granted that this be true, he did not say how it knows and in virtue of what cause; nor is this made clear by anything else he said.
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Quicumque autem contrarietates faciunt in principiis, et animam ex contrariis constituunt; quicumque autem alterum contrariorum, calidum aut frigidum aut aliquid huiusmodi aliud, et animam similiter unum aliquid horum ponunt. Unde et nominibus consequuntur qui quidem calidum dicentes, quia propter hoc et vivere nominatum est, qui autem frigidum, propter respirationem et refrigerationem vocari animam.
Those who posit contraries in the principles also constitute the soul from such contraries, while those who favor some one among contraries (hot or cold, or some other like these) make the soul, accordingly, one of these. Whence also some follow names, as those who allege that it is hot, because life is due to heat and is named from it. But those who identify the soul with cold say that it is named from respiration and cooling.
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Tradita quidem igitur de anima, et propter quas causas dicunt sic, haec sunt.
Such then are the opinions that have been handed down to us about the soul, together with the reasons given for them.
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53. Differunt autem de principiis etc. In praecedentibus ostendit in quo antiqui philosophi conveniebant quantum ad considerationem de anima, in hoc scilicet quod anima est principium motus et cognitionis; in parte autem ista ostendit qualiter dicti philosophi diversificati sunt circa hoc commune. Dividitur autem pars ista in partes tres:
53. Opinions differ, however (404b30). In the preceding chapters, Aristotle has shown the old philosophers agreeing in their consideration of the soul, in that they all regarded it as the principle of movement and knowledge. In the section beginning now, he shows how they variously interpreted that common presupposition. This section falls into three parts.
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primo enim ponit radicem diversitatis philosophorum quantum ad considerationem de anima;
In the first, he shows the root of the divergence of these philosophers in their teaching on the soul;
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secundo vero illas diversitates specialiter enumerat, ibi: unde quibusdam etc.;
in the second, he enumerates the various points of difference, at hence some (405a5; [55]);
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tertio colligit et compilat ea quae circa huiusmodi diversitates consideranda sunt, ibi: definiunt autem omnes etc.
in the third, he summarizes all that we have to consider in these differences, at all, taken together (405b10; [65]).
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Radix autem diversitatis philosophorum in consideratione de anima est quia ipsi attribuebant animam principiis, sicut dictum est, et ideo secundum differentiam dictorum philosophorum circa considerationem principiorum est etiam differentia ipsorum in consideratione de anima; dicti vero philosophi, licet omnes ponant animam componi ex principiis, non tamen conveniunt quod ponant animam componi ex eisdem principiis, sed sicut differunt de principiis, ita etiam differunt de consideratione animae.
The root of the divergence of the philosophers in their teaching on the soul is to be looked for in the way they attribute it to the principles, as was said; as the philosophers disagreed about these principles, so did they differ about the soul.1 They all agreed that the soul was made up of principles, but they could not agree that it was made up of the same principles; and, differing as to the principles, they also differed in their consideration of the soul.
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54. Differunt autem de principiis quantum ad duo, primo quantum ad substantiam principiorum, quae scilicet sint, secundo quantum ad numerum, quot scilicet sint.
54. They differ, however, in two ways about the principles: first, as to the substance of the principles, that is, what they are; second, as to their number, how many they are.
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Quantum ad substantiam quidem, quia quidam ponebant principia corporalia, illi scilicet qui posuerunt ignem aut aquam aut aerem, quidam vero incorporalia et immaterialia, sicut qui posuerunt numeros et ideas, quidam vero miscentes utraque, sicut [Platonici] qui posuerunt principia sensibilia et separata.
As regards their substance, some said these principles were corporeal (those who posited them as fire or water or air), while others said they were incorporeal and immaterial, such as those who spoke of numbers and ideas; and there were others, like the Platonists, who mixed both views and asserted that there existed both sensible principles and separate principles.
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Circa numerum seu multitudinem differunt, quia quidam posuerunt tantum unum primum principium, sicut Heraclitus qui posuit aerem et alius ignem, quidam vero dicunt plura prima principia, sicut Empedocles qui posuit quatuor elementa.
They differed as to their number or multitude, for there were some who admitted only one first principle. Heraclitus, for instance, said it was air; and someone else, fire; while others said there were several first principles—Empedocles, for instance, who posited the four elements.
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Et secundum has suppositiones de principiis consequenter assignant animam his principiis, quia qui ponebant principia materialia dixerunt animam ex ipsis componi, sicut Empedocles, et similiter hi qui ponebant immaterialia, sicut Plato. Omnes autem existimaverunt animam id quod maxime motivum est.
And according to these suppositions concerning principles, they assign a soul to these principles accordingly. For those who posited material principles, like Empedocles, said the soul was composed of such; and those, like Plato, who posited immaterial principles did likewise. But all considered the soul to be the chief source of movement.
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55. Consequenter cum dicit: unde quibusdam etc., enumerat diversitates philosophorum in speciali.
55. Next, at hence some (405a5), he proceeds to run through the more particular differences between the philosophers.
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Sciendum est autem quod inter illos qui ponebant unum corporum esse principium rerum, nullus dignatus est ponere solam terram, sed alii posuerunt ignem primum principium, alii aerem, alii aquam, terram vero nullus posuit nisi qui posuit omnia quatuor elementa esse primum principium; et ratio huius est quia terra propter suam grossitiem magis videbatur esse composita ex principiis quam ipsa esset principium. Et ideo circa hanc partem tria facit:
It should be noted that, of those who thought that one of the bodies is the principle of things, not one deigned to identify it with mere earth. Rather, some said the first principle is fire, others air, others water, but nobody said it is earth, except those who thought that all the four elements together were the first principle. The reason is that, with its density, earth seemed more to be composed of principles than to be a principle. Aristotle, then, does three things here.
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primo enim ponit opiniones illorum qui posuerunt primum principium et animam esse ignem et igni coniuncta;
First, he gives the views of those who asserted that the first principle and soul is fire and joined to fire;
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secundo vero ponit opinionem illorum qui posuerunt primum principium et animam esse aerem, ibi: Diogenes autem etc.;
second, he gives the opinion of those who held that the first principle and soul is air, at now, Diogenes (405a21; [59]);
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tertio vero ponit opiniones illorum qui posuerunt aquam esse primum principium et animam, ibi: magis autem rudium etc.
and third, he gives the opinion of those who held that water is the first principle and soul, at some cruder thinkers (405b1; [62]).
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56. Circa primum sciendum est quod, propter hoc quod animae attribuitur motivum et cognoscitivum, visum est quibusdam animam esse illud quod est maxime motivum et cognoscitivum et quia illud quod est maxime subtile videbatur eis quod esset maxime motivum et cognoscitivum, ideo dixerunt animam esse ignem, qui est inter ea corpora magis subtilis et activus. Et licet plures essent huius opinionis et sic opinarentur animam esse ignem, Democritus tamen subtilius et rationabilius dixit hoc enuntians propter quid utrumque horum, id est rationem motus et cognitionis magis expressit. Volebat enim, sicut dictum est, quod omnia erant composita ex atomis, et licet secundum eum huiusmodi atomi essent principium omnium rerum, nihilominus tamen volebat quod atomi quae sunt figurae rotundae essent de natura ignis, et ideo dicebat animam componi ex illis quae sunt figurae sphaericae; et haec in quantum sunt prima principia dicebat habere rationem cognoscendi, in quantum vero rotunda, rationem movendi; et ideo in quantum anima erat composita ex huiusmodi corporibus indivisibilibus rotundis, dicebat eam cognoscere et movere omnia. Unde ponens illa corpora rotunda de natura ignis, concordabat cum istis quod anima esse de natura ignis.
56. As to the first of these groups, we should note that, since causing movement and knowing were ascribed to the soul, some have held that the soul is able to move and to know in the highest degree; and as the ability to move and to know seemed to connote what is finest, they concluded that the soul is fire, which is the finest and most active of bodies. And while many were of this opinion and thought the soul to be fire, Democritus more subtly and rationally explained the reason for either fact, that is, he expressed more clearly the account of movement and of knowledge. For he held, as we have seen, that all things are made of atoms; and though for him these atoms were the principles of all realities, he maintained, nevertheless, that the round atoms were of the nature of fire, so that the soul, he said, was composed of atoms of spherical shape.1 Considered as first principles, these atoms have the account of knowing, but as spherical, they have the account of moving; hence he said that the soul knows and moves all things precisely because it is made up of these round, indivisible bodies. Whence, in assuming that these round bodies were of the nature of fire, he agreed with those who thought that the soul is of the nature of fire.
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57. Consequenter cum dicit: Anaxagoras autem etc., ponit Anaxagorae opinionem, qui in hoc concordabat cum praecedentibus quod eidem, scilicet animae, attribuit rationem cognoscendi et movendi. Hic autem aliquando videtur alterum dicere animam et intellectum, sicut dictum est superius, sed aliquando utitur utrisque, scilicet anima et intellectu, sicut una natura: ipse enim dicebat animam esse motivam et cognoscitivam; unde, cum ipse poneret intellectum moventem omnia et cognoscitivum, pro eodem accipiebat animam et intellectum. Sed in hoc differebat ab aliis, quia Democritus ponebat animam esse naturae corporeae, utpote ex materialibus principiis compositam, Anaxagoras vero dicit intellectum esse simplicem, ut excludat diversitatem in essentia, immixtum, ut excludat compositionem cum alio, et purum, ut excludat adulterationem ab alio. Sed movere et cognoscere assignat eidem principio, scilicet intellectui: nam intellectus ex natura sua habet quod sit cognoscens, motum autem habet quia ipse, sicut dictum est, dicit intellectum omnia movere.
57. Then, at Anaxagoras, however (405a13), Aristotle gives the view of Anaxagoras, who agreed with the others already mentioned in ascribing the account of knowledge and of causing motion to the soul. However, Anaxagoras sometimes seems to speak of soul and intellect as diverse, as was said above, but sometimes he treats both, that is, soul and intellect, as one nature.1 For he ascribes to the soul motive power and knowledge, so because he also says that intellect knows and moves all things, he takes the soul and the intellect as the same thing. But he differed from the others in this, that whereas Democritus held that the soul is of a corporeal nature, being composed of material principles, Anaxagoras said that intellect is simple, excluding diversity in its essence, and unmixed, excluding composition with anything else, and pure, excluding any addition to it from outside. But he ascribed moving and knowing to the same principle, that is, the intellect; for intellect of its own nature knows, and movement pertains to it, so he said, because it moves everything else.2
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58. Consequenter cum dicit: videtur autem Thales etc., ponit opinionem cuiusdam philosophi, scilicet Thales, qui in hoc solum concordat cum superioribus quod illud dicit esse animam quod habet virtutem motivam. Hic enim, scilicet Thales, fuit unus de septem sapientibus et cum omnes alii studerent circa moralia, hic solus dedit se inquisitioni rerum naturalium et est primus naturalis philosophus; et ideo dicit: ex quibus reminiscuntur. Qui voluit quod aqua esset principium omnium rerum: hic enim secundum considerationem principii in rebus animatis opinabatur esse principium omnium rerum; unde, cum principia seu semina omnium animatorum sint humida, voluit quod illud esset principium omnium rerum quod est maxime humidum; et quia huiusmodi est aqua, dixit aquam esse principium omnium rerum. Sed tamen non consequitur opinionem suam de principio in hoc quod diceret animam esse aquam, sed illud dixit esse animam quod habet virtutem motivam; unde, cum lapis quidam, scilicet magnes, moveat ferrum, dixit illum habere animam. Ponuntur ergo Anaxagoras et Thales cum istis, non quod dicant animam esse ignem, sed quia dicunt illud esse animam quod habet rationem motus et cognitionis, sicut dicit Anaxagoras, seu motus tantum, sicut dicit Thales.
58. Next, at it seems that Thales (405a19), he states the opinion of a philosopher called Thales, who had only this in common with the others mentioned above, that he said that the soul has a motive power. For this Thales was one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece; but while the others studied moral matters, Thales devoted himself to the inquiry about natural things and was the first natural philosopher. This is why Aristotle says, from what they recollect. He maintained that water was the principle of all things; for he thought, following his consideration of the principle in ensouled things, that it is the principle of all things; for, since all the principles or seeds of ensouled things are moist, he thought that whatever is the most moist would be the principle of all things; and this being water, he said water was the principle of all things. Yet still he did not follow his own opinion about the principle in saying that the soul is water, but rather he said that the soul is what has the motive power. Hence he asserted that a certain stone, the magnet, had a soul because it moved iron. Anaxagoras and Thales, then, are included in the present list not for identifying the soul with fire but because the former said that the soul holds the account of knowledge and movement, and the latter that it holds the account only of movement.
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59. Deinde cum dicit: Diogenes autem, ponit opiniones illorum qui dicunt aerem esse primum principium et animam. Et hi quidem sunt tres.
59. Where he says, now, Diogenes (405a21), Aristotle alludes to those who thought that air was the first principle and soul. There were three of these.
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Primo ergo ponit opinionem Diogenis qui volebat quod aer esset principium omnium et esset subtilissimum omnium corporum, unde et animam dixit esse aerem et ex hoc habere virtutem cognoscendi et movendi; virtutem quidem cognoscendi habet quia aer secundum eum est principium omnium: cum enim cognitio fiat per simile, sicut dictum est, oportebat quod si anima cognosceret omnia, esset composita ex principiis omnium rerum; virtutem vero movendi habet quia aer est subtilissimum omnium corporum, et ideo maxime mobilis.
First, there was Diogenes who held that air was the first principle and also the finest of all bodies, and that the soul therefore was air—hence its power to know and move. The knowing power was due to the fact that air was, as he said, the first principle; for as knowledge is through likeness, as we have seen, the soul could not know all things unless it included the principles of all.1 And the moving power was due, he said, to the fact that air was the finest of bodies and, therefore, the most mobile.
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60. Secundo cum dicit: Heraclitus autem etc., ponit opinionem Heracliti, qui non dicebat aerem esse principium rerum, sed aliquod coniunctum aeri, scilicet vaporem, qui est medius inter aerem et aquam. Hic enim non posuit aquam seu aerem principium rerum, sed aliquid medium, quia non posuit nisi materialia tantum, unde illud voluit esse principium rerum quod esset magis remotum a contrarietate, et hoc videbatur ei quod esset vapor, et secundum hoc voluit quod anima esset vapor, quia ex hoc dicebat animam maxime cognoscitivam et motivam esse. Ipse enim fuit huius opinionis quod omnia essent in continuo fluxu et quod nihil vel ad horam quiesceret nec poterat aliqua oratio determinate dici. Unde, cum vapor esset inter alia maxime fluxibilis, dixit illum esse omnium rerum principium et hunc dicit esse animam; et dixit quod naturam cognoscitivam habet ex hoc quod est principium, motivam vero ex hoc quod est incorporalissimum et fluxibile.
60. Second, at Heraclitus, however (405a25), he states the second opinion, that of Heraclitus, who thought that not mere air but vapor, the blend of air and water, was the first principle. He could not allow that this was either water by itself, or fire, or air; it had to be something between, because, being a materialist, he was concerned to find a principle midway between the opposite extremes of material quality. Thinking that vapor answered this requirement most precisely, he said that the soul was vapor, which explained its extraordinary capacity to know and to move. His view was, indeed, that everything was in continual flux, that nothing stayed the same even for one hour, and that no determinate statement could be made about anything. And it was just because vapor is so unstable that he identified it with the first principle of all things, which, he said, was a soul. As the first principle, soul has the power to know, while as the least material and most fluid of things, it has the power to move.
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61. Tertio vero cum dicit: similiter autem his etc., ponit opinionem Almeonis, qui concordabat cum istis quantum ad motum tantum, qui dicebat animam esse quid mobilissimum; unde, quia semper movetur, assimilatur immortalibus, scilicet corporibus caelestibus, et ideo dicit eam immortalem, sicut corpora caelestia quae semper moventur, ut luna, sol et huiusmodi, immortalia sunt.
61. Third, at Alcmaeon seems (405a29), he gives the third opinion, Alcmaeon’s, which agrees with the others only as regards movement, for he said the soul is a most mobile thing. Whence, because it is always in motion, it bears a resemblance to immortal beings, that is, to the heavenly bodies. For he attributed immortality just as the heavenly bodies, which are always moving, like the moon, sun, and the like, are immortal.
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62. Deinde cum dicit: magis autem rudium etc., ponit opiniones illorum qui posuerunt aquam primum principium omnium rerum. Fuerunt enim quidam rudes discipuli et sequaces Thales qui, sicut dictum est, voluerunt comparare principium unius rei ad principium totius naturae; et isti videbant quod principium omnium viventium sit humidum, unde opinabantur quod eodem modo principium omnium rerum sit humidum; cum igitur aqua sit humidius elementum inter cetera, dixerunt ipsam esse principium omnium rerum.
62. Then, at some cruder thinkers (405b2), Aristotle states an opinion of some who made water the first principle of all things. For there were certain rather crude students and followers of Thales who (as was said) tried to compare the principle of one particular thing to the principle of nature as a whole. Observing that moisture was fundamental to living things, they concluded that in the same way it must be the principle of all things; in short, since water has more of moisture than do any of the others, they said it is the principle of all things.
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Et usque ad hoc secuti sunt Thales, sed in hoc differunt, quia Thales, licet poneret aquam esse omnium principium, non tamen dixit animam esse aquam, sed virtutem moventem, sicut dictum est, isti vero de numero rudium dixerunt animam esse aquam, ut Hippus. Hic namque arguit quosdam qui dicebant animam esse sanguinem, ex hoc quod sanguis non est genitura, seu semen rerum animatarum, quam dicebant esse primam animam, et hoc attribuebant aquae propter humiditatem.
So far indeed they followed their master, Thales; but whereas he, though admitting water to be the principle of all things, would not, as we have seen, allow that the soul is water, but rather a motive power, his cruder disciples, like Hippo, asserted that it is water. Hippo tried to refute those who said the soul is blood with the argument that blood is not semen, which they called the first soul of ensouled things. He identified this with water on account of its moisture.
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63. Consequenter cum dicit: alii autem sanguinem etc., ponit opinionem cuiusdam philosophi, qui magis considerans animam quantum ad cognitionem, adhuc grossius locutus est de ipsa, dicens ipsam esse sanguinem. Cuius ratio est quia in animali non est sensus sine sanguine et ideo, cum anima sit principium cognoscendi, dixit ipsam esse sanguinem sine quo non est sensus in animali: exsanguia enim, puta ossa et ungues et dentes, sine sensu sunt, licet nervi sine sanguine existentes maxime sensitivi sint. Et hoc dixit Critias.
63. Next, at others, such as Critias (405b5), he alludes to a philosopher who was more interested in the soul’s knowledge. He was still cruder in his expressions, saying that the soul itself is blood. His reason was that because sensation does not take place in animals without blood, he said it is the blood, without which sensation does not occur in animals, since the soul is the principle of knowing: for the bloodless organs, such as bones, nails and teeth are without sensation (he forgot the nerves, which are extremely sensitive and yet bloodless).1 It was Critias who said this.
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64. Quia vero posset quaeri quare in consideratione de anima non facit mentionem de terra sicut de aliis elementis, ideo excusat se cum dicit: omnia enim elementa etc., dicens quod secundum hoc opinati sunt de anima sicut de principiis; unde cum terra nullum iudicem acceperit, id est nullus iudicaverit eam esse principium, per consequens nullus dixit animam esse terram, nisi forte aliquis dixerit animam componi ex omnibus principiis, sicut Empedocles, aut omnia principia, sicut Democritus.
64. In case anyone should wonder why he has not mentioned earth along with the other elements, Aristotle, at opinions have (405b8), explains that his predecessors’ views on the soul followed on what they thought about the principles; and as earth received no opinion, that is, no one judged it to be the principle, nobody said it is the soul, unless we count those—such as Democritus and Empedocles—who said that soul is, or is composed of, all the principles.
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65. Deinde cum dicit: definiunt autem omnes etc., epilogat et colligit ex his omnibus quae dixit suam intentionem;
65. Then, at all, taken together (405b10), he summarizes, concluding this part of the inquiry:
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et primo quantum ad ipsa principia;
and first, with reference to the elements or principles themselves;
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secundo vero quantum ad contrarietates quae sunt in ipsis principiis, ibi: quicumque autem contrarietates etc.
and second, with regard to the contrarieties that are found in them, at those who posit contraries (405b23; [67]).
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Quantum vero ad ipsa principia, quia ipsi tria attribuebant animae, scilicet quod sit quid subtilissimum, quod sit quid cognoscitivum et quod sit quid motivum; et haec tria, scilicet sensus, motus et incorporeum, reducunt in principium: illud enim dicunt esse principium quod est simplex. Item principium ex se habet quod sit cognoscitivum, quia, sicut dictum est, simile simili cognoscitur; unde et animam dicebant componi ex elementis aut esse elementa, quia dicebant quod simile simili cognoscitur, praeter Anaxagoram qui ponebat intellectum immixtum. Item, quia principium est subtilissimum, dicebant illud maxime motivum. Et quia anima cognoscit omnia, dicunt ipsam componi ex omnibus principiis. Et hoc dicunt omnes, quia secundum quod ponunt principia, ita etiam ponunt animam; unde quicumque ponunt unam aliquam causam seu principium et elementum unum, isti dicunt animam esse illud unum, sicut iam patet, ut ignem aut aerem seu aquam; item illi qui dicunt plura principia esse, isti similiter dicunt animam esse plura.
First, then, as regards the principles themselves, because they attributed to the soul its being extremely fine, the ability to know, and the ability to move, these three things also—sensation, motion, incorporeality—they trace back to a principle. For that is called a principle which is simple. Also, a principle, it is said, has the ability to know because, to recall what was said above, like is known by like; whence they said that the soul is composed of, or even is, the elements, because like is known by like.1 Anaxagoras, to be sure, is an exception as he posited an unmixed intellect. Again, they said it is most able to move because a principle is something most fine. And because the soul knows all things, they said that it is composed of all the principles. And they all said this because the way they posited the principles is the way they also posited the soul. Some posited there is one cause or principle or element, such as fire, air, or water, these saying that the soul is a single thing. So, too, whoever upheld several principles said likewise that the soul is many.
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66. Et quia dixerat quod omnes conveniunt in hoc quod dicunt animam componi ex principiis, quia oportet cognosci simile simili, praeter unum, scilicet Anaxagoram, ideo cum dicit: Anaxagoras autem solus, ostendit qualiter differt ab eis, dicens quod Anaxagoras solus dixit intellectum esse impassibilem nec habere aliquid commune alicui, id est nulli eorum quae cognoscit similem. Sed qualiter cognoscit intellectus, neque Anaxagoras dixit neque est manifestum ex his quae dicta sunt.
66. And because he said that all agree in saying that the soul is composed of the principles because like must be known by like—all, that is, except one: Anaxagoras; therefore, he says, but Anaxagoras alone (405b19), to show how this man differed from the others. Anaxagoras alone, says Aristotle, denied the passivity of the intellect,1 saying that Anaxagoras alone said that the intellect cannot be acted upon and has nothing in common with other things. But how intellect knows, Anaxagoras does not say how; nor can one infer anything certain by anything else he said.2
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67. Consequenter cum dicit: quicumque autem etc., colligit intentionem suam quantum ad contrarietates quae in ipsis principiis sunt, dicens quod quidam ponunt principia rerum contraria et hi constituunt animam ex principiis contrariis, sicut Empedocles: dans enim in elementis caliditatem, frigiditatem, humiditatem et siccitatem, dat et animae inesse has contrarietates; dixit enim quod terra terram intuemur, aqua autem aquam, etc.
67. To end this section, Aristotle summarizes what he has to say touching the contrariety of the above-mentioned principles to one another. Some, he says, arrange the first principles of things in pairs of opposites; and the soul also they regard as coming from contraries (405b23). Thus Empedocles thought that the heat and cold, the moisture and dryness which he found in the elements were intrinsic to the soul also. As earthy, he said, we know earth, as watery water, and so on.1
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Qui vero posuerunt principium omnium esse unum elementorum, illius qualitatem apponunt animae; hi quidem ignis caliditatem, qui dicunt principium omnium esse ignem; illi vero qui dicunt primum principium omnium aquam, apponunt animae frigiditatem; unde secundum qualitates principiorum quae ponunt, dicunt similiter esse animam, ut de natura caloris aut frigoris et huiusmodi.
Others found their first principle of all things in only one element, whose particular quality they then attributed to the soul. If it was fire, they attributed heat,1 for those who say the principle of all things is fire; those who say it is water attribute coolness to the soul. According to the principle assumed, so was the quality of that principle attributed to the soul, as though it shared in the nature of heat or cold, etc.
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Et hoc etiam ostenditur ex nominibus quibus nominant ipsam animam, quia illi qui dicebant animam de natura caloris, denominant eam a zin, id est vivere, quod denominatum est a zein, quod est fervere; illi vero qui dicebant animam de natura frigoris denominabant eam psychron, quod est frigidum (unde et ab hoc venit psychis, id est anima), propter refrigerationem quae salvat animal ex respiratione. Sic ergo patet quod alii nominabant a vita, scilicet illi qui dicebant ipsam de natura caloris, alii autem a respiratione, scilicet illi qui dicebant quod erat de natura frigoris.
This is clear from the names they gave to the soul. Those who said it was hot gave it names derived from zaein or zooein, meaning to live, which itself comes from zeein, meaning to boil;1 while others who said it was cold called it psychron, meaning cold, whence comes psyche, a term applied to the soul because the coolness caused by breathing preserves animal life.2 Those who thought the soul was by nature hot named it from life; those who thought it was by nature cold, from respiration.
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Ex his omnibus concludit dicens quod haec sunt quae tradita sunt de anima et propter quas causas sic dicunt de ipsa.
And Aristotle concludes by saying that the foregoing are the opinions handed down about the soul, together with the reasons given for them (405b29).
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L. 6 (Α.3, 405b31–406b15)Soul as a self-moving substance
Adversus illos pluribus rationibus contendit, qui animam secundum substantiam moveri opinabantur
Soul as a self-moving substance
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Considerandum autem primum quidem de motu; fortassis enim non solum falsum est substantiam ipsius huiusmodi esse qualem aiunt dicentes animam esse quod est se ipsum movens aut possibile movere, sed unum quiddam impossibilium inesse ipsi motum.
The first thing to be considered is movement. For perhaps it is not only false to say that this is the substance of the soul, as some mean when they say the soul is self-moving, or is able to move itself, but that there should be movement in it at all is an impossibility.
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Quod quidem igitur non necesse sit movens et ipsum moveri prius dictum est. Dupliciter enim movetur omne. Aut enim secundum alterum, aut secundum se ipsum.
It has already been stated that it is not necessary that everything that causes motion be itself moving. For everything moves in one of two ways: either in virtue of another, or in virtue of itself.
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Secundum alterum dicimus quaecumque moventur ex esse in eo quod movetur, ut nautae: non enim similiter moventur navi; haec quidem enim secundum se ipsam movetur, illi autem ex esse in eo quod movetur. Manifestum autem in partibus est: prius1 quidem enim est pedum2 ambulatio, haec autem et hominum est; non inest autem nautis tunc. Dupliciter itaque dicto moveri, nunc intendamus de anima si per se ipsam movetur et participat motu.
We say “in virtue of another” of anything that is moving through being in that which is moving, like sailors; for these are not in motion in the same way as the ship. The latter is moving according to its very self, but they are through being in what is moving. This is evident if we consider their parts. Walking belongs to the feet in a prior way, but this also belongs to men; but this is not how it is for the sailors. To be moving being so predicated in two ways, we now turn to the soul, asking whether it moves through itself and participates in motion.
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Quatuor autem motus cum sint, loci mutationis, alterationis, augmenti et decrementi, aut secundum unum horum movebitur aut secundum plures aut omnes. Si vero movetur non secundum accidens, natura inerit motus ipsi; si autem hoc, et locus: omnes enim dicti motus in loco sunt.
Since there are four motions (change of place, alteration, increase, and decrease), its motion must be one of these, or some, or all. But if its movement is not accidental, then motion will be in it by nature: and if so, it so will place, for all the aforesaid movements are in place.
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Si autem est substantia animae movere se ipsam, non secundum accidens moveri ipsi inerit, sicut albo et tricubito; moventur enim et haec, sed secundum accidens: cui enim insunt, movetur illud corpus. Unde non est locus ipsorum, animae autem erit, si quidem natura motu participat.
If it is the substance of the soul to move itself, to be in motion will not be in it accidentally, as it is for what is white or three cubits long; for these also move, but accidentally. For what is moved is the body in which these inhere; hence, place does not belong to them but to the soul, if indeed it naturally participates in motion.
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Amplius autem si natura movetur, et violentia movebitur; et si violentia, et natura. Eodem autem modo se habet et de quiete: in quod enim movetur natura, et quiescit in hoc natura; in quod autem violentia, quiescit in hoc violentia. Quales autem violenti motus animae erunt et quietes, neque fingere volentibus facile est reddere.
Further, if it moves by nature, it will also move by force; and if by force, then, by nature. And its rest will be in the same way. For whithersoever it moves by nature, there it will come to rest by nature; and likewise, wheresoever it is moved by force, there it will come to rest by force. But what kind of enforced motions and rests will there be in the soul? To find an answer is not easy, nor even to imagine one.
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Amplius autem si quidem sursum movebitur, ignis erit, si vero deorsum, terra; horum enim corporum motus hii; eadem autem ratio et de mediis.
Again, if it moves upwards, it will be fire, and if downwards, earth; for such are the movements of these bodies; and the same holds of the intermediate elements.
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Quoniam autem videtur movere corpus, rationabile est his movere motibus quibus et ipsa movetur. Si autem hoc, et convertentibus dicere verum quod secundum quod corpus movetur, hoc et ipsa. Corpus autem movetur secundum loci mutationem; quare et anima mutabitur secundum corpus aut tota aut secundum partes translata. Si autem hoc contingit, et exeuntem iterum ingredi; ad hoc autem sequetur resurgere mortua animalium.
Since it seems to move the body, it would seem reasonable to say that it does so by the same motions as those by which it is moved itself. If so, then it is true to say, conversely, that just as the body moves, the soul also moves. Now, the body moves by change of place; hence the soul too will change in accordance with the body, either the whole or the parts being carried forth. If this is so, then it might happen that after leaving the body it could return to it. And it would follow that dead animals could rise again.
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Motu autem secundum accidens si ab altero moveatur; depelletur enim utique violentia animal. Non oportet autem cui a se ipso moveri in substantia, hoc ab alio moveri nisi secundum accidens, sicut neque quod secundum se bonum aut propter se ipsum, hoc quidem propter aliud esse, hoc autem alterius causa.
If it does move, however, by something else, its motion will be accidental; for certainly an animal can be driven by force. But what has self-movement of its substance cannot be moved by another, save accidentally, as that which is good in itself or for its own sake cannot exist for the sake of another, or on account of another.
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Animam autem maxime dicet aliquis utique a sensibilibus moveri, si quidem movetur.
One might certainly say that, if the soul is moved at all, it is moved by the objects of sensation.
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At vero et si movet ipsa se ipsam, et ipsa movebitur utique. Quare, si omnis motus exstantia est ab eo quod movetur secundum quod movetur, et anima exstabit utique a substantia ipsius secundum se ipsam, nisi secundum accidens se ipsam moveat, sed est motus substantiae ipsius per se.
But if it moves itself, it also is in motion. Hence if all motion is a displacement from that which is moved inasmuch as it is moved, then the soul must be displaced from its own substance by itself, unless it moves itself accidentally; but this is a self-movement of its substance.
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68. Considerandum autem primum etc. Supra posuit Philosophus opiniones aliorum philosophorum de anima; hic consequenter disputat contra eas. Sunt autem tria quae dicti philosophi attribuebant animae, scilicet quod sit principium motus, quod sit principium cognitionis et quod sit incorporalissimum seu subtilissimum. Inter quae duo ex eis sunt quasi principalia, quae primo et per se animae attribuebant, scilicet quod sit principium motus et quod sit principium cognitionis. Tertium autem quod attribuebant animae, scilicet quod sit subtilissimum, quantum ad aliquid bene dicitur et quantum ad aliquid male; si enim subtilissimum accipiatur simpliciter dictum de anima, sic bene dicitur, quia sine dubio anima incorporalissima et subtilissima est; si autem non accipiatur simpliciter sed cum corpore, ut dicatur anima subtilissimum corpus, sic male dicitur. Et ideo Philosophus non utitur per se nisi de duobus tantum, scilicet motu et cognitione.
68. The first thing to be considered (405b31). The Philosopher now begins to criticize the theories he has been recounting. These theories amount to three statements about the soul: that it is the principle of movement, that it is the principle of knowledge, and that it is most incorporeal or finest. The two former attributions, the principal ones—that it is the principle of motion and that it is the principle of knowledge—they attribute to the soul primarily and through itself. The third—that it is finest—is said well in one sense and said badly in another. For if “finest” is taken as predicated simply of the soul, then it is well said, for soul is without a doubt the most incorporeal and finest thing. But if it is predicated not simply but along with the body, as if to say that soul is the finest body, then it is said badly. Hence the Philosopher sets to work only with the two former attributions of movement and of knowledge, which are said of the soul through itself.
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69. Dividitur autem pars ista in tres partes:
69. This part of the treatise falls into three divisions.
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primo enim inquirit de anima contra opiniones philosophorum secundum quas dixerunt ipsam esse principium motus;
Aristotle first argues against the philosophers who had made the soul the principle of movement;
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in secunda secundum quas dixerunt ipsam animam esse principium cognitionis, ibi: tribus autem modis traditis etc.;
second, at there are, then, three ways (409b18; [178]), against those who regarded it as the principle of knowledge;
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in tertia vero movet quamdam quaestionem, utrum scilicet movere sentire cognoscere attribuatur animae sicut uni principio vel sicut diversis, ibi: quoniam autem cognoscere animae est.
and third, at since knowledge does belong to the soul (411a26; [199]), he raises a question whether movement, sensing, and knowing ought to be attributed to the soul as to one principle or several.
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Prima pars dividitur in duas:
The first of these divisions is again divided.
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in prima disputat contra ea quae dicuntur de anima secundum quod est principium motus ex eo quod ponunt ipsam principium motus;
He first adduces objections against simply identifying the soul itself with a source of movement;
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secundo contra quamdam opinionem, quia supra hoc quod dixerunt animam esse principium motus, quidam attribuunt ipsi animae aliquid aliud, scilicet quod sit numerus movens se ipsum, ibi: multum autem his quae dicta sunt irrationabilius.
second, against an opinion proceeding from this identification, according to which the soul was also a self-moving number. This comes at by far the most unreasonable (408b32; [168]).
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Pars prima dividitur in duas:
The former argument again subdivides into two:
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primo enim disputat contra opiniones illorum qui attribuebant motum animae secundum quod ipsi attribuunt animae motum;
first, a criticism of the way in which these philosophers had predicated movement of the soul, inasmuch as they attribute movement to the soul itself;
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secundo inquirit utrum per aliquam aliam viam motus animae attribui possit, ibi: rationabilius autem dubitabit etc.
and second, at one might with more reason (408a34; [146]), a query whether this predication might have been made differently.
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Pars prima dividitur in duas:
Then the criticism is divided into two:
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primo enim disputat in communi contra illos qui dicunt animam principium motus;
first, a general argument against all who said that the soul was the source of movement;
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secundo vero descendit ad quasdam quaestiones in speciali, ibi: quidam autem et movere etc.
and second, at some say that a soul moves (406b15; [87]), a series of particular discussions of special points.
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Pars prima dividitur in duas:
Finally, the general argument is subdivided.
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primo enim manifestat suam intentionem;
First, he says what he intends to do;
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secundo ponit rationes ad propositum ostendendum, ibi: quatuor autem motus cum sint etc.
second, he argues in support of his own opinion, at since there are four motions (406a12; [75]).
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70. Dicit ergo primo quod, sicut ex superioribus habetur, philosophi ex duobus venerunt in cognitionem animae, scilicet motu et sensu, et inter haec primo considerandum est de motu.
70. He begins then by remarking that philosophers have studied the soul from two points of view, from motion and from sensation. This is clear from what has been said.1 And Aristotle says that he will start from movement (405b31).
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Omnes autem philosophi qui venerunt in cognitionem animae ex motu, hoc principium habebant commune, scilicet quod omne quod movet, movetur; unde quia naturale est animae quod moveret, credebant quod eidem sit connaturale quod moveretur et hoc habere animam ex substantia sua; unde et ponebant in eius definitione motum, dicentes animam esse quid movens se ipsam.
Now, all the other philosophers who came to know the soul from motion had one principle in common, namely, that everything that produces movement is itself in motion. They thought, therefore, that if soul is by nature a cause of movement, the soul has this from its own substance. So they put movement into its definition, calling it something that moves its very self.
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71. Est ergo hic contra duo disputandum, scilicet contra rationem positionis et contra ipsam positionem: utrumque enim est falsum. Nam et ratio positionis istorum falsa erat et eorum positio. Hoc enim quod supponebant tamquam per se verum, scilicet quod omne quod movet, movetur, falsum est, sicut satis probatur in VIII Physicorum, ubi ostenditur quod est quoddam movens immobile;
71. Now, here there are two disputable points, the reasoning of the position and the position itself, for each of these is false. For both the argument for their position and their position is false. For they supposed something as true through itself—that everything that moves another is moving—when it is false, as is clearly enough shown in Physics 8, where Aristotle proves the existence of an immobile mover.1
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et quantum ad hoc pertinet, breviter potest ostendi, quia si aliquid movet et movetur, constat quod secundum quod movet est in actu, secundum quod movetur est in potentia, et sic idem et secundum idem esset in actu et in potentia, quod est inconveniens.
And as to this, we may give here a short proof: for if something that produces movement is also moving, it is certain that insofar as it produces movement, it is in act, and insofar as it is moving, it is in potency. And thus the same thing would be in act and potency in the same respect, which is incongruous.
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72. Sed hoc praetermisso, disputemus ad positionem eorum, utrum scilicet anima moveatur. Dicebant enim isti duo, scilicet quod anima movetur et quod motus esset de substantia animae. Aristoteles utrumque negat, dicens quod fortassis (hoc dicit quia nondum probaverat hoc quod dicit) non solum <falsum est>; quod motus sit de substantia animae, secundum quod dicunt [definientes ipsam] dicentes animam esse quod est se ipsum movens aut possibile movere, sed totaliter impossibile est convenire ipsi animae quod moveatur.
72. But even setting this difficulty aside, the position that the soul is in movement is disputable. Its upholders indeed added the further proposition, that movement was of the soul’s substance; but Aristotle denies both, where he says, for perhaps. He puts it like this because he has not yet proved his assertion, namely, that it is not only false to say that movement is of the substance of the soul (which is what they imply when they say the soul is self-moving or is able to move itself) but that it is also quite impossible that the soul should move at all.
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73. Et hoc prius dictum est, scilicet in VIII Physicorum, videlicet quod non sit necesse omne movens moveri. In movente enim se ipsum duo sunt, unum movens et aliud motum, et impossibile est quod illud quod est movens moveatur per se. In animalibus autem, licet non moveatur per se pars movens, movetur tamen per accidens.
73. That not everything which causes movement need itself be moving was already stated in an earlier work, book 8 of the Physics. Now, in any self-mover there are two things to be considered, the thing moving and the thing moved; and the former cannot through itself be the same as the latter. In animals, however, though the moving part is not in motion through itself, yet it is in motion accidentally.
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Omne enim quod movetur, movetur dupliciter, quia vel secundum alterum vel secundum se; secundum alterum seu per accidens, quando non movetur ipsum, sed illud in quo est, sicut nauta movetur non quia ipse moveatur, sed quia navis movetur; unde haec, scilicet navis, movetur secundum se, nauta vero secundum accidens. Et quod non movetur per se nauta, patet, quia quando aliquis movetur per se, movetur secundum partes suas, sicut in ambulatione prius est pedum ambulatio, et hoc, cum est nauta in navi, non inest ei. Sic ergo patet quod moveri dicitur dupliciter, secundum se et secundum accidens; sed isti attribuebant animae moveri secundum se, et ideo, praetermisso ad praesens utrum anima moveatur per accidens, intendamus de anima si movetur secundum se et participat motu, sicut isti dicebant.
For everything that is in motion moves in two ways, either in virtue of another or in virtue of itself: in virtue of another, or accidentally, when it is not itself moving but that in which it is, is moving, just as the sailor is moving not because he himself is moving, but because the ship is moving; hence, this, the ship, moves virtue of itself, but the sailor only accidentally. And that this sailor is not moving through himself is clear, since when someone is moving through himself, he is moving in virtue of his own parts, as in someone walking, walking belongs to the feet in a prior way; but when the sailor is on a ship, this is not how it is. Movement, then, can be taken in either of these two ways, in through itself and accidentally; but since the philosophers we are discussing said that the soul moves through itself, we can forgo at present the question whether it moves accidentally, and consider only whether it moves through itself and participates in motion, as they maintained.
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74. Et quod non movetur per se, probat Aristoteles sex rationibus.
74. To show that the soul does not move through itself, Aristotle uses six arguments.
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Circa quas rationes considerandum est quod, licet rationes Aristotelis parum videantur valere, nihilominus tamen sunt efficaces, quia sunt ad positionem; aliter enim argumentandum est ad eum qui simpliciter intendit veritatem, quia ex veris oportet procedere, sed qui argumentatur ad positionem, procedit ex datis; et ideo frequenter Aristoteles, quando argumentatur ad positiones, videtur quod inducat rationes parum efficaces, quia procedit ex datis ad interimendum positionem.
With regard to which, we should note that, while the arguments may not appear strong, still they are effective in relation to the position he is criticizing. For one should argue in one way for one who intends to find the truth simply speaking, since one must proceed from true things, but one who is arguing against a position proceeds from the things granted. Hence it is that when Aristotle criticizes the positions, he often seems to use rather weak arguments. In each case, he is, in fact, using appropriately effective arguments because, to destroy the position, he is proceeding from the things granted.
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75. Sic ergo primam rationem ponit [ibi] cum dicit: quatuor autem etc., quae talis est. Si anima movetur, aut movetur per se aut per accidens.
75. The first argument begins at since there are four motions (406a12) and may be stated as follows. If the soul moves, its movement is either through itself or accidentally.
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Si per accidens, tunc motus non erit de substantia animae, quod est contra eos, sed movetur sicut album et tricubitum quae moventur secundum accidens et ideo non exigitur ad hoc locus ipsis.
If accidentally, then it is not of the substance of the soul (which is against their opinion); rather, the soul moves in the same way as whiteness or three cubits, which move only accidentally, and they themselves do not need place for this.
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Si vero movetur per se, ergo movetur aliqua specie motus; species autem motus sunt quatuor, scilicet secundum locum, augmenti et decrementi et alterationis (generatio enim et corruptio non sunt proprie motus, sed mutationes), ergo anima movebitur aliqua specie istorum motuum, vel secundum locum vel secundum augmentum vel secundum decrementum vel secundum alterationem; si ergo movetur aliquo istorum et omnes hi motus sunt in loco, ergo anima erit in loco.
But if the soul moves through itself, it moves in one of the four species of movement: change of place, growth, decrease, or alteration. (For coming-to-be and passing-away are not movements, properly speaking, but changes.) Hence the soul will have to move in one of these four species—in reference to place; by increase or decrease; or by an alteration. But if it moves in one of these and all these movements occur in place, the soul will then also be in a place.
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76. In hac autem ratione videntur esse duo dubia.
76. There seem to be two doubtful points in this argument.
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Unum de hoc quod dicit quod omnes dicti motus sunt in loco, quod quidem de locali et de motu augmenti et decrementi manifestum est, sed de alteratione videtur difficile. Quod quidem sic intelligitur ab aliquibus; quia enim omne quod alteratur est corpus et corpus est in loco, ideo alteratio dicitur fieri in loco. Sed hoc non salvat litteram Aristotelis, quia Aristoteles dicit quod huiusmodi motus sunt in loco, non secundum locum. Et ideo dicendum quod sine dubio alteratio est in loco: aliud enim est motus in loco et aliud motum esse secundum locum; alteratio non est secundum locum, sed est in loco, nam in alteratione oportet quod sit appropinquatio alterantis ad alteratum: sine hoc nihil alteraretur; unde, cum appropinquatio fiat per motum localem, oportet quod sit ibi motus localis ut causa.
The first is that, while it is clear enough that locomotion, growth, and decrease occur in a place, it suggests a difficulty about alteration. Some meet this difficulty by saying that as only bodies are subject to alteration, and all bodies are in place, alteration itself may be said to occur in place. But this does not keep to the letter of the argument: Aristotle says that this kind of movement is in place and not merely according to place. And therefore one should say that alteration certainly occurs in place, for motion in a place is something other than motion according to place. But alteration is not according to place, but it is in place, for in an alteration the agent producing it must draw near to the thing being altered; otherwise, nothing would ever be altered. And since drawing near is a local movement, it follows that local motion is present there as its cause.
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77. Secundum dubium est quia secundum istos non erat inconveniens si anima esset in loco, cum ponerent eam moveri per se; et ideo non videtur valere sua ratio. Ad hoc autem potest responderi dupliciter: uno modo, quod istud inconveniens deducitur per sequentes rationes; alio modo, quia propter hoc est inconveniens, quia si anima esset in loco, oporteret quod assignaretur sibi locus proprius in corpore separatus, et sic non esset forma totius corporis.
77. The second difficulty is that these philosophers do not in fact see anything incongruous in the soul’s being in place, since they maintain that it moves through itself. So Aristotle’s objection seems not strong. To this, two answers might be given: in one way, that the incongruity of the soul’s being in place will become clearer in subsequent arguments; and in another way, because this is why it is incongruous: if the soul were in place, it would have to be assigned a proper and separate place within the body, and thus would not be the form of the whole body.
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78. Secundam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem etc., quae talis est. Si anima movetur per se secundum locum, movetur naturaliter; omne autem quod movetur naturaliter, movetur violenter; sed si movetur naturaliter, quiescit naturaliter, et si quiescit naturaliter, quiescit violenter; ergo anima movetur violenter et quiescit violenter. Sed hoc est impossibile, scilicet quod moveatur violenter et quiescat, quia motus animae et quies sunt voluntarii.
78. The second argument, at further, if it moves (406a22), is this. If the soul moves through itself according to place, the movement must be natural to it. But anything that moves naturally is also moved by force. Now, its natural movement implies a natural rest, and if it comes to rest naturally, it comes to rest by force. Therefore the soul moves by force and rests by force. But this is impossible, since the soul’s motions and rests are voluntary.
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79. In hac autem ratione videtur dubium esse, scilicet quod id quod movetur naturaliter movetur violenter: nam caelum movetur naturaliter, non tamen violenter. Ad quod dicendum est quod illa propositio secundum veritatem falsa est, sed secundum positionem vera, quia isti nullum corpus ponebant naturaliter motum nisi quatuor elementa, in quibus videmus motus et quietes violenter fieri, et secundum hoc procedit ratio.
79. A difficulty here seems to be with the claim that what is moved naturally is also moved by force; for the heavens move naturally but not by force. I answer that the position is in truth false but, relative to the position, it is true. For these philosophers maintained that the only bodies that moved with a natural movement were the four elements, in which we do observe enforced movement and rest. This opinion is presupposed by the argument.
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80. Tertiam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius si quidem etc., quae talis est. Illi dicunt quod anima movetur et ex hoc movet corpus; et hunc motum dicis habere ab aliquo elementorum: aut ergo sequitur motum ignis aut terrae aut aliorum mediorum; si ergo participat motum ignis, movebitur solum sursum, si terrae, deorsum; sed hoc est falsum, quia anima movetur ad omnem partem. Et haec ratio procedit ex suppositione.
80. The third argument, at again, if (406a27), runs as follows: these who ascribe movement to the soul and to the body only as derived from the soul, also say that this movement is due to one or other of the elements, fire or earth or one of the intermediates. But if the soul participates in the motion of fire, it will only rise; if in that of earth, it will only sink; whereas in fact it moves in all directions. This argument is by supposition.
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81. Quartam rationem ponit cum dicit: quoniam autem videtur etc., quae talis est. Vos dicitis animam ex hoc moveri quod movet corpus, ergo rationabile est dicere quod illis motibus movet corpus quibus ipsa movetur et e converso verum erit dicere quod illis motibus movetur quibus movet corpus; sed corpus movetur secundum loci mutationem; ergo et anima movetur secundum locum; sed si moveri animam secundum locum est mutare corpus, contingit ipsam animam exeuntem iterum reintrare corpus et, quia animam ingredi corpus est vivificare corpus, sequitur ad hoc mortua de numero animalium secundum naturam resurgere, quod est impossibile.
81. The fourth argument comes at since it seems (406a30). It is this. You say that it is in moving the body that the soul moves. It would seem reasonable, then, to say that it moves the body by its own movements; and conversely, that it is moved by the same motions which move the body. But the body is moved by change of place; so also, then, the soul. But if the soul’s local movements affect the body, the soul might, after leaving the body, enter it once more. And since it is the soul’s entrance into the body that gives life to the body, it follows that dead animals might, even naturally, rise again, which is impossible.
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82. Contra hanc rationem aliqui obiiciunt dicentes quod hoc, scilicet quod anima moveat eisdem motibus quibus movetur, non est verum, quia anima non movetur nisi secundum appetitum et voluntatem, movet autem corpus aliis motibus.
82. Against this argument some have objected that it ignores the difference between the movements which affect the soul itself and those by which it moves other things, including the body. The former are movements of appetite and will; not so the latter.
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Ad quod dicendum quod appetere et velle et huiusmodi non sunt motus animae, sed operationes, motus autem et operatio differunt quia motus est actus imperfecti, operatio vero est actus perfecti; nihilominus tamen vera est illa propositio secundum positionem, quia illi dicebant animam non aliter mobilem nisi secundum quod movet corpus.
But in reply, one may say that to desire and to will and so on are not movements of the soul but its activities. Movements and activities differ in that movement is an act of something incomplete, whereas an activity is an act of something complete. Still, what Aristotle says is true relative to the position under discussion, for they said the soul is mobile only insofar as it moves the body.
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83. Sed numquid sequitur illud inconveniens quod resurgant corpora animalium si anima movetur secundum locum? Dicendum quod quidam dixerunt quod anima est commixta toti corpori et unita secundum quamdam proportionem et quod non separatur nisi solvatur illa proportio, unde quantum ad istos non sequitur; sed quantum ad illos qui dicunt animam esse in corpore ut in loco seu in vase [et intrare] et ingredi aliquando, illis sequitur illud inconveniens Aristotelis.
83. But is it true that if the soul had local movement dead animals would come to life again? One should say that some have maintained that the soul pervades the whole body and is united according to some kind of proportion, and that it is not separated unless this proportion is destroyed; so according to them, the conclusion would not follow. But it does follow from the opinion of those who say the soul is located in the body as in a place or a vessel,1 which it sometimes enters and sometimes leaves.
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84. Quintam rationem ponit cum dicit: motu autem secundum accidens etc., quae talis est. Constat quod illud quod secundum se inest alicui rei, non est necesse quod insit ei secundum aliud, nisi forte per accidens. Si ergo inest animae quod moveatur secundum se et secundum naturam suam, necessarium est quod anima sit mobilis secundum se; ergo non indiget quod moveatur per aliud et ab alio. Sed nos videmus quod movetur a sensibilibus in sentiendo et ab appetibilibus in appetendo. Non ergo anima per se movetur.
84. The fifth argument comes at if it does move (406b5), and it runs as follows. It is clear that when anything belongs to something through itself, its presence in the latter is not through something else, except maybe accidentally. If, then, motion is present in the soul through itself and according to its own nature, it is necessary that the soul is mobile in virtue of itself, so it does not need to be moved through or by anything else. But we see that it is in fact moved by sensible things when it senses, and by desirable things when it desires; therefore, it does not move through itself.
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85. Ad hoc obviant Platonici dicentes quod anima non movetur a sensibilibus, sed occurrunt motui animae in quantum anima discurrit per ea.
85. The Platonists meet this argument by denying that the soul is moved by sensible things; these, they say, are merely involved in the soul’s own movement when it passes from one object to another.
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Sed hoc est falsum, quia, sicut Aristoteles probat, intellectus possibilis reducitur per ipsa, scilicet per species rerum sensibilium, in actum et ideo oportet quod moveatur ab eis hoc modo.
But this is false. As Aristotle proves, the potential intellect is brought into act through them, that is, through the species of sensible realities, so it must be moved by them in this way.
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86. Sextam rationem ponit cum dicit: at vero et si movet etc., quae talis est. Si anima movet se ipsam, constat quod ipsa movebitur secundum suam substantiam; sed omne quod movetur, distat vel exit ab eo a quo et secundum quod movetur, sicut si aliquid movetur a quantitate, exit et distat ab ipsa quantitate a qua movetur. Si ergo anima movetur a substantia sua et a se ipsa, sicut illi dicunt, distabit et exibit a substantia, et sic motus erit sibi causa corruptionis; quod est contrarium illis, qui dicebant propter motum ipsam animam assimilari divinis et immortalem esse, ut superius patet.
86. The sixth argument begins at but if it moves itself (406b11). Clearly, if the soul moves itself, it will be in motion according to its own substance. But in every movement, the moving thing comes away or proceeds from that which moves it and inasmuch as it is moved; for instance, if anything is moved by a quantity, it departs and proceeds from that quantity. If, then, the soul is moved by its own substance and by itself (as they say), it must be displaced or proceed from its own substance, which is as much as to say that it causes its own destruction. How then could it be through movement itself that the soul becomes god-like and immortal, as some philosophers whom we have mentioned supposed?1
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Et haec ratio procedit quantum ad eos, quia non distinguebant inter operationem et motum; operatio enim non facit distare, sed perficit operantem; sed in motu oportet quod sit exitus.
This argument bears against those who did not distinguish between movement and activity. For activity does not make a displacement, but rather it completes the one acting, whereas in motion there must be a departure.
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L. 7 (Α.3, 406b15–407a2)Democritus and Plato on the soul as a mover of the body
Reprobat Democriti sententiam de anima, qui eam voluit moveri ex atomis, et adducit de anima Platonis sententiam
Democritus and Plato on the soul as a mover of the body
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Quidam autem et movere animam dicunt corpus in quo est sicut ipsa movetur, ut Democritus, similiter dicens Philippo comediarum didascalo: ait enim Daedalus mobilem fecisse ligneam Minervam, effundens argentum fusile. Similiter autem et Democritus dicit: motas enim inquid indivisibiles speras, propter id quod apte nate sunt nusquam manere, contrahereque et movere corpus omne.
Some say that a soul moves the body in which it dwells just as it is itself in motion, as, for example, Democritus, who spoke like Philip the comic poet; for the latter relates that Daedalus made a wooden Venus mobile by pouring quicksilver into it. Democritus, then, spoke in like manner, saying that there are in movement indivisible spheres of which the nature is to be never at rest and which therefore draw together and move the whole body.
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Nos autem interrogabimus si et quiescere facit hoc idem; quomodo autem faciet, difficile aut impossibile dicere.
Now, what we would ask is whether this is also the cause of coming to rest. How it could be, on this hypothesis, is difficult to see—indeed impossible.
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Omnino autem non sic videtur anima movere animal, sed per voluntatem quamdam et intellectum.
The soul seems, in general, not to move the animate being in this way, but by a certain will and understanding.
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Eodem autem modo et Thymeus physiologizat animam movere corpus; in eo enim quod est moveri ipsam, et corpus movet propter id quod complexa est ad ipsum.
In the same way, the Timaeus sets out a physical theory as to how the soul moves the body. For from the fact that the soul moves, it moves the body as a result of its connection with the body.
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Constitutam enim ex elementis et dispertitam secundum harmonicos numeros, quatinus sensum connaturalem harmoniae habeat, et ut omne feratur secundum consonantes motus.
For it is compounded of the elements and divided according to harmonic numbers, so that it has a connatural sense of harmony, and the whole is borne along with well-attuned motions:
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Aspectum rectum in circulum reflexit; et dividens ex uno in duos circulos dupliciter coordinatos iterum unum divisit in septem circulos tamquam essent caeli motus animae motus.
He bent the straight line into a circle, and, dividing it, made two circles, adjusted at two points, out of one; and again, he divided one of these into seven circles, as though the heavenly motions were the soul’s motions.
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87. Quidam autem et movere animam etc. Supra Philosophus posuit rationes in communi contra eos qui posuerunt animam secundum se moveri; hic vero ponit rationes in speciali contra quosdam qui aliquid specialis difficultatis videntur dixisse circa opinionem eorum de motu animae. Circa hoc tria facit:
87. Some say that a soul moves the body (406b15). Having argued in a general way against the view that movement pertains to the soul in virtue of itself,1 the Philosopher now brings forward arguments against particular philosophers whose theories of the movement of the soul seem to give rise to some special difficulty. These arguments fall into three groups.
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primo enim ponit rationes ad opinionem Democriti;
First, he opposes an opinion of Democritus;
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secundo vero ad opinionem Platonis, ibi: eodem autem modo etc.;
second, at in the same way (406b25; [91]), one of Plato;
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tertio vero ad quamdam aliam opinionem, ibi: alia autem quaedam opinio etc.
and third, at there is another opinion (407b27; [132]), another theory.
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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primo enim ponit opinionem Democriti de motu animae et exponit eam;
He begins, then, by stating the view of Democritus on the soul’s movement;
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secundo vero obiicit in contrarium, ibi: nos autem interrogabimus etc.
and then he brings objections against it.
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88. Circa primum sciendum est quod in praecedentibus ponitur in una ratione Aristotelis contra illos qui ponunt animam moveri secundum se et ex hoc movet corpus, quod si anima movet corpus necesse est quod illis motibus moveat quibus ipsa movetur. Et hoc concedebant quidam, qui dicunt animam movere corpus in quo est sicut ipsa movetur, id est illis motibus quibus ipsa movetur; et hic fuit Democritus. Et inducebat ad hoc similitudinem,
88. This theory has already been referred to by Aristotle in his fourth objection to the view that the soul moves in itself and by this movement makes the body move.1 If the soul moves the body, he has said, it must do so in virtue of its own movement. This was admitted by some who said that each soul moves the body in which it dwells just as it is moved itself, that is, with those motions by which it is moved itself; among whom was Democritus, who made use of the following illustration.
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quia erat quidam magister comediarum nomine Philippus: hic enim recitavit in libris suis quod quidam nomine Daedalus fecit statuam ligneam deae Minervae et haec statua erat mobilis ex eo quod erat intus argentum fusile, id est vivum, et movebatur motu ipsius argenti vivi. Simile ergo huic dicit Democritus in opinione sua de motu animae: dicit enim quod anima est composita ex indivisibilibus sphaeris, ut superius patet, et quia huiusmodi indivisibiles sphaerae, id est atomi, figurae rotundae continue moventur, ex eo quod numquam quiescunt contrahunt et movent totum corpus secundum quod ipsae moventur.
There was a certain comic dramatist called Philip who tells somewhere of one Daedalus, that he made a wooden statue of the goddess Venus, and that this statue, being filled with quicksilver, was able to move. It moved as the quicksilver moved. And what Democritus said of the soul’s movement was rather similar. The soul, he said (as has been noted above), was composed of indivisible spheres or atoms which, being round in shape, were always moving about, and by their incessant movement made the whole body cohere and move accordingly.1
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89. Deinde cum dicit: nos autem etc., obiicit Aristoteles contra hanc opinionem Democriti duabus rationibus.
89. Then, at now, what we (406b22), Aristotle puts two objections to this opinion of Democritus.
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Prima ratio talis est. Constat quod anima non solum est causa motus in animali, sed quietis; sed secundum opinionem Democriti anima non est causa quietis in animali, quia difficile aut impossibile est dicere quod illa corpora sphaerica indivisibilia quiescant, cum numquam maneant, ut dictum est.
First, it is agreed that in animals the soul is the cause of resting as well as the cause of movement. But according to Democritus the soul is never the cause of rest, though it is the cause of animal movements. For it is difficult to see—indeed impossible that those spherical atoms ever rested if they never cease to move.
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90. Secundam rationem ponit cum dicit: omnino autem non sic etc., quae talis est. Constat quod motus quem argentum vivum causat in statua non est motus voluntarius sed violentus; sed motus animae non est violentus, sed voluntarius, quia movet per voluntatem et intellectum. Et ideo nihil <valet> positio Democriti.
90. Again, at the soul seems (406b24), he puts a second objection. The movement caused by quicksilver in the statue is obviously not voluntary; it is a compelled movement. On the contrary, that of the soul is voluntary, proceeding from will and understanding. Hence the view of Democritus seems worthless.
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91. Deinde cum dicit: eodem autem modo etc., ponit opinionem Platonis. Et circa hoc duo facit:
91. Then, at in the same way (406b25), he states the opinion of Plato, concerning which he does two things:
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primo ponit opinionem Platonis;
first, he states the opinion of Plato;
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secundo reprobat eam, ibi: primum quidem igitur etc.
second, he rejects it, at now in the first place (407a2; [107]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things:
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primo ostendit similitudinem opinionis Platonicae ad opinionem Democriti;
first, he shows the similarity of the Platonists’ opinion to the theory of Democritus;
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secundo explicat opinionem Platonis de anima, ibi: constitutam enim ex elementis etc.
second, he explains what Plato said about the soul, at for it is compounded of the elements (406b28; [92]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, sicut Democritus posuit corpus moveri ab anima in quantum anima coniuncta ipsi movetur, ita et Timaeus qui introducitur a Platone loquens assignat naturam quare anima movet corpus: dicit enim quod anima movet corpus in quantum ipsa movetur propter hoc quod anima coniuncta est corpori per modum cuiusdam colligationis.
Therefore, he says first that, as Democritus had supposed that the soul’s movements moved the body to which it was joined, so also did Timaeus, a speaker introduced by Plato. For he said that soul moves body insofar as soul itself is moved; because the two are, as it were, bound up together.
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92. Deinde cum dicit: constitutam enim ex elementis etc., explicat opinionem Platonis;
92. Then, when he says, for it is compounded (406b28), Aristotle makes Plato’s view explicit:
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et primo exprimit constitutionem substantiae ipsius;
first, as to what constitutes the substance of the soul;
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secundo exponit quomodo ex ea procedit motus, ibi: aspectum rectum in circulum reflexit.
second, at he bent (406b31; [99]), as to how movement proceeds from it.
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Circa primum sciendum est quod Plato haec verba quae hic ponuntur in Timaeo prosequitur loquens de anima mundi quam imitantur secundum ipsum inferiores animae; et ideo per hoc quod hic tangitur de natura animae mundi, quodam modo tangitur natura omnis animae. Sciendum est igitur quod, sicut supra dictum est, Plato posuit substantiam omnium rerum esse numerum, ratione superius dicta; elementa autem numeri ponebat unum quasi formale et duo quasi materiale: ex uno enim et duobus omnes numeri constituuntur. Et quia impar numerus quodam modo retinet aliquid de indivisione unitatis, posuit duo elementa numeri, par et impar, et impari attribuit identitatem et finitatem, pari autem attribuit alteritatem et infinitatem.
Regarding the former question, note that the words quoted here are used by Plato in the Timaeus and refer to the soul of the world which, according to him, is imitated by inferior souls.1 So when he touches, as here, on the nature of the world-soul, he refers also, in a way, to any soul. Now Plato, for the reason already given, maintained that the substance of all things was numerical, and that in number the formal element, so to say, was one, and the material element, two—all numbers being made up of one and two.2 And as odd numbers retain something of the indivisibility of one, he laid down two elements of number, the even and the odd, attributing identity and finitude to the odd, but difference and infinity to the even.
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93. Cuius signum tangitur in III Physicorum, quia si supra unitatem impares numeri per ordinem addantur, semper producitur eadem figura numeralis, puta si supra unum addantur tria qui est primus impar, consurgit quatuor, qui est numerus quadratus; quibus rursus si addatur secundus impar, scilicet quinarius, consurgit novenarius, qui item est numerus quadratus, et sic semper in infinitum. Sed in numeris paribus semper surgit alia et alia figura: si enim unitati addatur binarius qui est primus par, consurgit ternarius, qui est numerus triangularis; quibus si rursus addatur quaternarius, qui est secundus par, consurgit septenarius, qui est septangulae figurae, et sic in infinitum.
93. Some explanation of this theory may be found in the Physics, book 3.1 If odd numbers are added to unity in sequence, the same type of number always results; for example, if three, the first odd number, is added to one, you get the square number four; if to four you add the second odd number, five, you get nine, which is also a square number; and so on to infinity. But with even numbers the result is always a different type of number. Add two, the first even number, to one, and the result is the triangular number three; to which, if you add four, the second even number, you get seven, which is septangular; and so on to infinity.
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Sic ergo Plato ponebat idem et diversum esse elementa rerum omnium, quorum unum attribuebat numero impari, aliud numero pari;
Hence, Plato made identity and difference the first elements of all things, attributing the former to odd numbers, the latter to even.
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94. quia vero substantiam animae ponebat mediam inter substantias superiores quae semper eodem modo se habent et substantias corporeas in quibus alteritas et motus invenitur, posuit animam constare ex his elementis, scilicet ex eodem et diverso et ex numeribus paribus et imparibus (medium enim debet esse affine utrique extremorum); et ideo dicit quod posuit eam constitutam ex elementis.
94. And because he placed the soul midway between the higher substances, which never change, and corporeal substances, which change and move, he thought that the soul was constituted of the elements of identity and difference, and so of odd and even numbers. For the mean must participate in both extremes. This is why Aristotle says that Plato held the soul to be compounded of these elements (406b28).
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95. Item, sciendum est quod in numeris sunt diversae proportiones et infinitae, quarum aliquae sunt harmonicae, id est consonantiarum causa. Nam dupla proportio est causa consonantiae quae dicitur diapason; sesqualtera proportio causat consonantiam quae dicitur diapente; sesquitertia proportio causat consonantiam quae dicitur diatessaron; sesquioctava proportio causat tonum; et aliae consonantiae quibusdam aliis proportionibus causantur, puta ea quae est composita ex diapason et diapente causatur ex tripla, ea quae bisdiapason ex quadrupla.
95. Again, we should note that in numbers there are different proportions and infinite numbers, of which some are harmonic, that is, the cause of harmony. The double proportion causes the harmony called a whole octave; that of three to two causes the harmony called a fifth; that of four to three causes the harmony called a fourth; that of nine to eight causes a tone; and the other harmonies are caused by other proportions: for example, the harmony composed of an octave and a fifth is caused by the triple proportion; that of the double octave is caused by the quadruple proportion.
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Quod quidem Pythagoras deprehendit, ut Boetius refert in Musica, ex percussione quatuor malleorum qui consonantes sonos reddebant secundum praedictas proportiones; ut puta si unus martellus ponderaret XII uncias, alius IX, alius VIII, alius VI, ille qui esset XII haberet duplam proportionem ad eum qui VI et redderetur cum eo consonantia diapason;
This was discovered by Pythagoras, as Boethius relates in Music, from the striking of four hammers which sounded in harmony according to the aforesaid proportions.1 Thus, if one hammer weighed twelve ounces, one nine, one eight and one six, the one that weighed twelve ounces would be in the proportion of two to one to the hammer weighing six, and the two together would render the harmony of the octave.
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ille autem qui XII ad eum qui VIII in sesquialtera proportione et consonat secundum diapente et similiter qui IX ad eum qui V.;
Again, the hammer weighing twelve ounces would be as three to two to the hammer that weighed eight, and the harmony produced would be that of a fifth; similarly in the case of those that weighed nine ounces and six ounces.
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item qui XII ad eum qui IX est in sesquitertia proportione et consonat cum eo secundum diatessaron et similiter qui VIII ad eum qui VI; qui autem IX ad eum qui VIII, cum sit in sesquioctava proportione, consonat secundum tonum.
Again, the hammer weighing twelve ounces is in the proportion of four to three to the one weighing nine, and it makes with it the harmony of a fourth; so also does the one that weighs eight with that weighing six; while the one weighing nine is proportioned to the one that weighs eight and produces with it the harmony called a tone.
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96. Licet autem Plato posuerit res omnes ex numeris constitui, non tamen ex numeris habentibus proportiones harmonicas; sed animam posuit esse constitutam secundum numeros habentes huiusmodi proportiones;
96. But though Plato said that everything is made up of numbers, he did not say these were numbers with harmonic proportions; but he did say that the soul is made up of numbers having these proportions.
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et ideo dicit quod posuit eam dispertitam, id est quasi dispensatam, secundum harmonicos numeros, id est secundum numeros proportionatos ad invicem secundum musicam proportionem:
Hence, Aristotle gives it as Plato’s view that the soul was divided, or, as it were, weighed out, according to harmonic numbers, that is, to numbers related to each other in musical proportions.
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posuit enim ex his numeris animam constitutam, ex uno, duobus, tribus, quatuor, 8, 9, XXVII, in quibus huiusmodi proportiones inveniuntur.
He said that the soul was constituted of the numbers one, two, three, four, eight, nine, and twenty-seven, in which these harmonic proportions are found.
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97. Duplici autem ex causa animam posuit constitutam ex numeris harmonicis. Una est quod unumquodque delectatur in eo quod est sibi simile et connaturale; videmus autem quod anima delectatur in omnibus harmonizatis et offenditur ex his quae sunt praeter debitam harmoniam tam in sonis quam in coloribus quam in quibuscumque sensibilibus; unde videtur harmonia de natura animae esse. Et hoc est quod dicit: quatinus anima habeat sensum, id est cognitionem, connaturalem harmoniae.
97. And he had two reasons for thinking this. One was the fact that similarity and connaturality are always a cause of pleasure. We find the soul taking pleasure in all harmonies and disliking whatever is unharmonious in sounds and colors and indeed in any sensible quality. So harmony seems to be natural to the soul. This is what he means by saying that the soul has a connatural sense (that is, knowledge) of harmony.
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98. Alia ratio est quia Pythagorici et Platonici posuerunt ex motibus caelorum provenire sonos optime harmonizatos et quia motus caelestes ponebant esse ab anima mundi posuerunt animam esse ex numeris harmonicis ut possit causare motus harmonizatos. Et hoc est quod dicit et ut omne, id est universum, feratur secundum consonantes motus.
98. The second reason is that the Pythagoreans and Platonists thought that beautifully harmonious sounds resulted from the movements of the heavenly bodies; and since they supposed these movements to be caused by the world-soul, they naturally concluded that the soul was made up of harmonic numbers. Hence, Aristotle says, that the whole (that is, the universe) is borne along with well-attuned motions.
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99. Deinde cum dicit: aspectum rectum etc., docet quomodo ex anima procedat motus caelestis. Ubi considerandum est quod omnes numeri, secundum naturalem ordinem accepti, linealiter dispositi sunt secundum rectitudinem prout unus addit super alterum; sed ex naturali serie numerorum potest aliquis accipere plures series, puta si accipiat homo quasi in una rectitudine totam seriem duplorum et in alia totam seriem triplorum et in alia totam seriem quadruplorum et sic de aliis.
99. Next, when he says, he bent (406b31), Aristotle explains how the world-soul is the cause of heavenly movements. Taking all numbers in their natural order, we must think of them as laid in a straight line, each one adding to the preceding one. Now the natural numerical series can give rise to several other series; for example, one might take the geometrical series whose common ratios are two or three or four, and so on for other ratios.
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Quod igitur homo sua cogitatione potest circa numeros operari, hoc et deus facit constituendo substantias rerum ex numeris; unde in constituendo substantiam animae ex numeris supradictis, qui omnes naturali ordine sunt in una rectitudine, quasi duas lineas divisit, unam duplorum et alteram triplorum: hae enim proportiones omnes proportiones harmonicas continent (nam dupla proportio dividitur in sesquialteram et sesquitertiam, et tripla in duplam et sesquialteram).
As, then, man, by thought, can manipulate numbers, so does God in building up the substances of things from numbers. In constructing the soul’s substance out of the aforesaid numbers, namely, all those placed in a straight line series according to their natural order, he divides them into two series: one, the geometrical series whose common ratio is two; the other, the geometrical series whose common ratio is three; because these two embrace all the harmonic proportions. For the double proportion is divided into the ratios 3:2 and 4:3; the triple into 2:1 and 3:2.
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Igitur in praedictis numeris accipitur series duplorum usque ad numerum cubicum, ut puta unum, duo, quatuor, octo, et alia series triplorum eodem modo, ut puta unum, tria, IX, XXVII; quae quidem duae series in unitate coniunguntur ac si essent duae lineae rectae angulum continentes.
Therefore, the above-mentioned numbers are taken, in the geometrical series with common ratio two, up to the first cube number, for example, one, two, four, up to eight; so also with the series with common ratio three, for example, one, three, nine, twenty-seven. These two series meet at unity like two straight lines containing an angle.
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100. Rursus, si unitati coniungantur quae sunt in linea triplorum, resultabunt numeri qui sunt in linea duplorum, puta si unitati addatur ternarius, fient quatuor, et e converso si unitati addatur binarius, fient tria; et sic constituentur quasi duae lineae sese intersecantes, secundum modum litterae Graecae quae vocatur chi.
100. Moreover, if the numbers in the series whose common ratio is three are joined to unity we get as a result the numbers of the series whose common ratio is two; for example, if to one is added three, the result is four. Conversely, if to one is added two, the result is three. Thus it is as if two lines were drawn intersecting each other like the Greek letter X.
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101. Si autem procedatur in ulterius, redibitur ad eosdem numeros: nam a quatuor procedetur ad octo et a tribus redibitur ad XXVII; et sic utrobique concludetur quasi quidam circulus.
101. If we proceed further, we return to the same numbers. For from four we go on to eight and from three to twenty-seven, both series concluding with the same type of number, as though we were going round in a circle.
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102. Sciendum est autem quod Plato ea quae inveniebantur in natura magis composita dicebat provenire ex proprietate naturae magis simplicis, sicut consonantias sonorum ex proportionibus numerorum; substantiam autem animae ponebat mediam inter numeros, qui sunt maxime abstracti, et inter substantiam sensibilem; et ideo proprietates animae deducebat ex proprietatibus praedictis numerorum. Nam in anima est primo considerare aspectum rectum, secundum quod aspicit directe ad suum obiectum, et postea reditur in circulum, in quantum intellectus reflectit se supra se ipsum. Invenitur etiam in anima intellectiva quasi circulus parium et imparium in quantum cognoscit ea quae sunt eiusdem et quae sunt diversae naturae; et hoc ulterius protenditur usque ad substantiam sensibilem caeli quam anima movet:
102. We must realize that for Plato the more complex things found in nature are composed of simpler natures, just as the harmonies of sounds arise from the proportions between numbers. He put the substance of the soul midway between numbers, which are eminently abstract, and sensible substances; and so he deduced the soul’s properties from the said numbers. Thus, in the soul we find, first, a direct knowing, in that it looks directly at its object; and then the circular return by which the intellect reflects upon itself. So, too, the intellectual soul moves in a sort of circle with respect to the even and the odd in knowing things both like and unlike itself. And this principle is extended to the substance of the visible heavens moved by the world-soul.
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103. nam in caelo consideratur duplex motus circularis; unus simplex et uniformis, secundum quem caelum revolvitur motu diurno de oriente in occidentem, qui quidem fit secundum circulum aequinoctialem; alius motus est planetarum, qui est ab occidente in orientem secundum circulum zodiacum, qui intersecat aequinoctialem in duobus <aequinoctialibus punctis, scilicet in principio Arietis et Libre, maxime autem declinat ab aequinoctiali in duobus> solsticialibus punctis, scilicet in principio Cancri et Capricorni.
103. For in the heavens we find two circular movements. One is simple and uniform by which the heavens move or revolve daily from east to west according to the equinoctial circle. The other is that of the planets, which is from west to east according to the circle of the zodiac, which intersect the equinoctial circle at two points, namely, at the beginning of Aries and Libra, but decline the most from the equinoctial circle at the two points of solstice, that is, at the beginning of Cancer and of Capricorn.
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104. Et quia motus primus est uniformis, ideo non dividitur in plures motus et assimilatur circulo imparium, et propter hoc etiam primus circulus maior est; nam impares numeri superius positi maiores sunt.
104. And since the former motion is uniform, it is not divided into several motions; and in this it resembles the circle of the odd numbers; which is also why it is the greatest circle; for the odd numbers referred to are greater than the even.
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105. Secundus autem motus habet multam diversitatem et ideo videtur pertinere ad circulum parium; et dividitur in VII circulos secundum sex interstitia duplorum et triplorum numerorum, ut dicitur in Timaeo (ubi enim sunt sex divisiones, necesse est esse septem divisa); unde et isti circuli minores sunt et continentur a supremo circulo, qui est imparium.
105. The second motion, however, is very much diversified, and seems therefore to answer to the circle of even numbers. It divides into seven circles according to the intervals between the numbers in the two series of multiples of two and of three, as is said in the Timaeus.1 Where there are six points of division there must be seven parts divided off. Hence these circles are smaller and are contained by the highest circle, which is that of the odd numbers.
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Sic ergo legenda est littera: ut omne, id est universum, feratur secundum consonantes motus, id est ut ex harmonia animae deriventur motus caelestes harmonizati, aspectum rectum deus reflexit in circulum, eo modo quo expositum est et secundum proprietatem numeri et secundum proprietatem animae, et dividens ex uno, propter unam naturalem seriem numeri et unam vim intellectivam animae, in duos circulos, scilicet parium et imparium quantum ad numeros, intelligentiam mobilium et immobilium quantum ad animam, motum secundum aequinoctialem et zodiacum quantum ad caelum;
So the text is to be interpreted thus: as the whole, that is, the universe, is borne along with well-attuned motions, that is to say, as the harmonized movements of the heavens are due to the harmony of the world-soul, God bent the straight line into a circle in the manner described, according to the properties of number and of the soul; and dividing this one circle—which is one by the unity of the natural series of numbers or by the intellectual power of the soul—into two circles, he forms the pair of numerical circles, the odd and the even, and the pair of circles in the soul, the understanding of moving and of motionless objects, and the pair of heavenly circles, the equinoctial and zodiacal motions.
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106. addit autem: dupliciter coordinatos, quia duo circuli se intersecantes tangunt se in duobus punctis; iterum unum, scilicet inferiorem, divisit in septem circulos, quasi planetarum, tamquam caeli motus essent animae motus, id est ac si caelum moveretur per motum animae.
106. He adds, however, adjusted at two points, because any two intersecting circles touch each other at two points. And again one, that is, the inferior one, he divided into seven circles, as if of the planets, as though the heavenly motions were the soul’s motions, that is, as if the heavens moved by the movement of the world-soul.
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L. 8 (Α.3, 407a2–407b26)A critique of Plato on the soul as a spatial magnitude
Adversus Platonem varias adducit rationes, quibus probat animam nullam penitus magnitudinem habere
A critique of Plato on the soul as a spatial magnitude
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Primum quidem igitur non bene dicere animam magnitudinem esse; hanc enim quae omnis talem esse vult qualis est aliquando vocatus intellectus. Non enim velud sensibilis est neque ut desiderativa; horum enim motus non circulatio est. Intellectus autem unus et continuus est sicut et intelligentia. Intelligentia autem intellectualia; haec autem eo quod consequenter unum sicut numerus, sed non sicut magnitudo; propter quod quidem neque intellectus sic continuus, sed aut impartibilis aut non sicut magnitudo aliqua continuus.
Now in the first place it is not well said to say that the soul is a magnitude. For that of the whole, Plato regards as of the same nature as what is sometimes called intellect, not as the sensitive or the appetitive soul; for the movement of these is not circular. Now intellect is one and continuous, as is the act of understanding, which in turn consists of thoughts. But these have unity by succession in a series, like number, not like extension. Therefore, neither is intellect thus continuous; but it is either indivisible or not continuous in the way that a magnitude is.
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Qualiter autem intelliget, magnitudo cum sit? Qualibet partium ipsius, parte autem aut secundum magnitudinem aut secundum punctum, si oportet et hoc partem dicere? Si quidem igitur secundum punctum, haec autem infinita, manifestum est quoniam nequaquam pertransibit. Si vero secundum magnitudinem, multotiens et infinities intelliget idem. Videtur autem et semel contingens.
How would it understand, if it were an extended quantity? As a whole, or by each of its parts? If by its parts, then by an extended part or by a point, if one may call a point a part. If by a point (of which there is an infinite number) it is evident that it will never complete the process. If by an extended part, it will understand the same thing many times over, even to infinity. Yet it seems to do so once for all.
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Si autem sufficiens qualibet partium tangere, quid oportet circulo moveri aut et omnino magnitudinem habere? Si autem necessarium intelligere toto circulo tangentem, quis est partibus tactus?
But if it is sufficient that it make contact with any one of its parts, why should it move in a circle or have any magnitude at all? But if it is necessary that it understand by contact with the whole of its circumference, what is the contact it makes by its parts?
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Amplius quomodo intelliget partibile impartibili aut impartibile partibili?
Again, how can the divisible be understood by the indivisible, or the indivisible by the divisible?
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Necessarium autem intellectum esse circulum hunc; intellectus quidem enim motus intelligentia, circuli autem circulatio; si ergo intelligentia circulatio, et intellectus utique erit circulus, cum huiusmodi circulatio sit intelligentia.
It is necessary that intellect be this circle; for as the movement of the intellect is to understand, and that of the circle is to revolve, if, then, understanding is a revolving, the intellect must be a circle whose revolving is thinking.
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Semper autem aliquid intelliget, si quidem perpetua circulatio. Practicarum quidem enim intelligentiarum termini sunt: omnes enim alterius causa sunt. Speculativae autem rationibus terminantur similiter; ratio autem omnis definitio est aut demonstratio; demonstrationes vero et a principio et habent quodam modo finem syllogismum aut conclusionem. Si autem non concludantur, sed non reflectuntur iterum in principium, accipientes semper medium et extremitatem recte procedunt; sed circulatio iterum in principium reflectit. Definitiones autem omnes finitae sunt.
But then it will always think something—since revolving goes on forever. All practical thinking, however, reaches a term, each being for the sake of something else; while speculative thinking likewise is limited by ideas, and every idea is either a definition or a demonstration. But demonstrations begin from principles and have as their term a syllogism or a conclusion. Even if they do not reach a conclusion, they do not come round again to their starting point; they always take a new middle term and conclusion and proceed straight forward. But revolving returns again to the beginning. Definitions too are all finite.
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Amplius autem si eadem circulatio multociens est, oportebit multociens intelligere idem.
Further, if the same revolving occurs many times over, it will be necessary to understand the same thing many times over.
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Adhuc autem intelligentia assimilatur cuidam quieti et statui magis quam motui. Eodem modo et syllogismus.
Moreover, intelligence is better compared with stillness and rest than with motion, and the same holds of syllogistic reasoning.
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At vero neque beatum quod non facile, sed violentum; si autem est motus ipsius non substantia, extra naturam utique movebitur.
Again, that will not be happy which is not at ease but forced. But if movement is not of the substance of the soul, it will only move unnaturally.
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Laboriosum autem est commisceri corpori nec possibile absolui, et adhuc fugiendum, si quidem melius est intellectui non cum corpore esse, quemadmodum et consuetum est dici et multis videtur.
It must be burdensome for the soul to be entangled with the body without possibility of release; and indeed this should be shunned if it is better for the intellect not to dwell in the body, as is commonly said and as seems true to many.
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Immanifesta autem et circulario ferri caelum, causa. Neque enim animae substantia causa circulariter ferri, sed secundum accidens sic movetur. Neque corpus causa, sed anima magis illi. At vero neque quia melius dicitur; et oportebat propter hoc deum facere circulariter ferri animam, quia dignius sit ipsi moveri quam manere, moveri autem sic quam aliter. Quoniam autem huiusmodi intentio est alteris rationibus magis propria, hanc quidem dimittamus nunc.
It is not clear why the heavens move by circular movement; for the substance of the soul is not the cause of the soul moving in a circle, for such movement is only accidental to soul. Still less is the body the cause, but rather, the soul is a cause for the body. Nor is this alleged as for the best; yet the reason why God made the soul revolve must have been because it is more worthy for it to move than to remain stationary and to move in this way rather than in any other. But this speculation is better suited to other contexts, so let us now dismiss it.
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Illud autem inconveniens accidit et huic rationi et pluribus quae de anima. Copulant enim et ponunt in corpus animam, nihil determinantes propter quam causam et quomodo habente corpore. Et tamen videtur hoc utique necessarium esse; propter enim communitatem hoc quidem agit aliquid, hoc autem patitur, et hoc quidem movet, illud autem movetur; horum autem nihil inest ad invicem quibuscumque. Hi autem solum conantur dicere quale quid sit anima, de susceptivo autem corpore nihil adhuc determinant, tamquam contingens sit secundum Pythagoricas fabulas quamlibet animam quodlibet corpus ingredi. Videtur enim unumquodque propriam habere speciem et formam. Simile itaque aliquid dicunt sicut si aliquis dicat tectonicam in fistulas ingredi. Oportet enim artem quidem uti organis, animam autem corpore.
Another absurdity arises in this argument and in many others dealing with the soul. They conjoin body and soul, placing the soul in the body without stating anything definite as to the cause of this or how the body is disposed. Yet this explanation is surely necessary, for it is in virtue of something in common that one is an agent and the other acted upon, one moves and the other is moved. No such correlations are to be found at random. These thinkers only endeavor to state what the soul is, without determining anything about the body which receives it, as if it happened that any soul entered any body, as in the fables of the Pythagoreans. For each particular thing seems to have its own proper form and species. It is like saying that carpentry enters into flutes; for each art must use its tools, and each soul its body.
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107. Primum quidem igitur etc. Posita opinione Platonis, hic Aristoteles reprobat eam.
107. Now in the first place (407a2). Having stated Plato’s opinion, Aristotle now proceeds to its refutation.
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Ubi notandum est quod Aristoteles plerumque quando reprobat opiniones Platonis, non reprobat eas quantum ad intentionem Platonis, sed quantum ad sonum verborum eius; quod ideo facit quia Plato habuit malum modum docendi: omnia enim figurate dicit et per symbola docet, intendens aliud per verba quam sonent ipsa verba, sicut quod dixit animam esse circulum; et ideo ne aliquis propter ipsa verba incidat in errorem, Aristoteles disputat contra eum quantum ad id quod verba eius sonant.
Here we should note that, often, in criticizing Plato, it is not precisely Plato’s own meaning that Aristotle criticizes, but the obvious sense of his words. He has to do this because Plato’s method of teaching was faulty; he constantly used figures of speech, teaching by symbols and giving his words a meaning quite other than their literal sense, as when he calls the soul a circle. So lest anyone should be led astray by this literal sense, Aristotle sometimes argues precisely against what the words say in criticizing Plato.
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108. Ponit autem rationes IX ad destruendum supra positam opinionem, quarum quaedam sunt contra eum et quaedam contra verba eius; non enim Plato voluit quod secundum veritatem intellectus esset magnitudo quantitativa seu circulus et motus circularis, sed metaphorice hoc attribuit intellectui; nihilominus tamen Aristoteles, ne aliquis ex hoc erret, disputat contra eum secundum quod verba sonant.
108. Against the above-mentioned opinion, then, he brings ten arguments, some of which bear on Plato’s own view and some on the literal sense of his words. Plato did not really mean that the intellect was anything quantitative or circular; he was talking metaphorically. Still, lest there should be any mistake about this, Aristotle argues against a literal interpretation of the words.
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109. Primo ergo Aristoteles circa primam rationem manifestat de qua anima Plato intellexit, scilicet de anima universi; et hanc, scilicet animam, quae omnis, id est universi, vult esse intellectivam tantum. Non enim est vegetabilis, quia non indiget nutrimento, nec est sensibilis, quia caret organo, neque est desiderativa, quia desiderativa consequitur sensitivam; et dixit ideo animam universi non esse sensibilem neque desiderativam, quia ipse voluit quod motus animae universi esset circularis, unde, cum motus horum, scilicet sensibilis et desiderativae, non sit circularis (non enim sensus reflectitur supra se ipsum, intellectus vero reflectitur supra se ipsum, homo enim intelligit se intelligere), ideo dicit illam animam intellectivam tantum esse et ideo dicit intellectum esse magnitudinem quamdam et circulum.
109. In the first argument, then, he explains what definition of soul Plato had in mind, that it was the soul of the universe, and that that soul which is of the whole, that is, of the universe, is exclusively intellectual, according to Plato. It is not vegetative, since it needs no nourishment; nor sensitive, since it has no organs of sense; nor appetitive, since appetite follows sensation. Indeed, it could not in any sense be sensitive or appetitive, granted that the movement of this, the universal soul, is circular, because neither sense nor appetite moves in a circle (for sense does not reflect upon itself) but only the intellect (which does reflect upon itself, as when a man knows that he knows). So Plato concluded that the world-soul was only intellectual, and he said that intellect itself was a sort of spatial magnitude and a circle.
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110. Et hoc Aristoteles reprobat dicens quod Plato non bene dixit animam esse magnitudinem et quod locutus est de ea sicut de magnitudine circulari, dividens eam in duos circulos, male fecit,
110. Aristotle denies this, saying that Plato did not speak well in representing the soul as a spatial magnitude, circular in shape, and in dividing it into two circles.
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111. et quod male fecerit, ostendit. In natura enim animae hoc est ut iudicium de aliqua potentia animae sumatur ex actu seu operatione ipsius potentiae, iudicium vero operationis ex obiecto; potentiae enim cognoscuntur per actus, actus vero per obiecta; et inde est quod in definitione potentiae ponitur eius actus et in definitione actus ponitur obiectum. Constat autem quod res ab eo a quo habet esse et speciem, ab eo etiam habet unitatem. Si ergo intellectus sit et sortiatur speciem ab intelligibili, cum sit eius obiectum (dico intellectum in actu, cum nihil sit ante intelligere), manifestum est quod, si sit unus et continuus sicut Plato posuit, quod eodem modo intellectus erit unus et continuus quo intelligibilia sunt unum et continuum; intellectus enim non est unus nisi sicut intelligentia, que est operatio eius, quae est intelligere, nec actus est unus nisi sicut obiectum eius est unum, quia actus distinguuntur penes obiecta.
111. And he points out where Plato went astray. In this matter of the nature of the soul, we have to base our judgment concerning any of its powers upon the act or activity of that power, and our judgment concerning the act or activity upon the object of this act or activity; for powers are known by their acts, and acts by their objects. Thus in the definition of a power is included its act, and in the definition of an act, its object. Now it is clear that a thing gets its unity from whatever gives it being and specific nature. If, then, the intellect gets its being and specific nature from the intelligible which is its object (I speak of the intellect in act, which, as such, is nothing before the act of understanding occurs), it is clear that if it is one and continuous, as Plato held, it will be so in the same way as intelligible objects are one and continuous. For the intellect is one only in the same way as is the act of understanding, which is its activity; and its activity is one only in the same way as its object is one; since acts are differentiated according to their objects.
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Unde, cum obiectum intellectus sit intelligibilia, haec autem, scilicet intelligibilia, non sint unum ut magnitudo seu continuum, sed sicut numerus eo quod consequenter se habeant, manifestum est quod intellectus non est magnitudo, sicut Plato dicebat, sed aut est impartibilis, sicut se habet qui primorum terminorum, aut non est continuus sicut aliqua magnitudo, sed sicut numerus, in quantum unum post aliud intelligimus et saepe plura terminantur in unum, sicut in syllogismis propositiones terminantur in conclusionem.
Since, then, the intellect’s object is intelligible, but these, obviously the intelligibles, compose a unity, not like a magnitude or a continuum, but like numbers which have unity by succession in a series, it is clear that the intellect is not, as Plato thought, a magnitude. It is either indivisible, as it is the nature of first principles to be,1 or not continuous in the way that a magnitude is but as a number; for as one number leads to another, so do we understand one object after another. And frequently several numbers terminate in one, as the premises in a syllogism terminate in one conclusion.2
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112. Secundam rationem ponit ibi: qualiter autem intelliget etc., quae talis est. Posset aliquis dicere: Plato non posuit magnitudinem in intellectu propter multa intelligibilia, sed oportet quod sit in intellectu magnitudo etiam propter unum quid intelligendum.
112. The second argument comes at how would it understand (407a10). For it might be answered that Plato’s reason for attributing magnitude to the intellect was not that there are many intelligibles but that each intelligible by itself shows it to be a magnitude.
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113. Contra. Hoc non potest esse. Plato enim opinatus est quod intelligere non fiat per acceptionem specierum in intellectu, sed quod intellectus intelligat per quemdam contactum, in quantum scilicet occurrit et obviat speciebus intelligibilibus, et istum contactum attribuit circulo, sicut supra dictum est.
113. But this will not do. For Plato maintained that the act of understanding was not a reception of species into the intellect, but he thought that the intellect understands through a sort of contact (as of a circle, as we have seen) due to the intellect’s going out to meet the intelligible species.
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Quaero ergo a te, si intellectus est magnitudo et intelligit secundum contactum, qualiter intelligat. Aut ad hoc quod intelligat tangit secundum totum, aut secundum partem eius; si secundum totum contingens intelligit totum, tunc partes non erunt necessariae, sed erunt frustra, et sic non est necesse quod sit intellectus magnitudo et circuli; si vero secundum partes contingens intelligit partes, aut hoc erit secundum omnes partes aut secundum unam tantum: si secundum unam tantum, sic idem quod prius, quia aliae erunt superfluae et sic non erit necessarium ponere intellectum habere partes;
But I ask you, how precisely does the intellect understand by contact if it is a magnitude? It must touch its object either with the whole of itself or with a part. But if with the whole of itself, then its parts are not needed and there is no necessity for supposing that the intellect is a magnitude or a circle. If, on the other hand, it touches with some of its parts, and thus understands in part, then either several of its parts are involved or only one. If only one, then again the other parts are superfluous, and we need not suppose that the intellect has parts.
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si vero contingens secundum omnes partes intelliget, aut hoc erit secundum partes punctales aut secundum partes quantitativas; si secundum partes punctales, tunc, cum in qualibet magnitudine sint infinita puncta, oportet quod infinities tangat ante quam intelligat et sic numquam intelliget cum non sit infinita pertransire
But if it understands by touching with all its parts, these must be either points or quantities. If points, then, since the number of points in any magnitude is infinite, the intellect would have to touch its object an infinity of times before it understood the latter at all; and thus it never would understand, since infinity cannot be traversed.
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114. (dicit autem partes punctales non quod velit magnitudinem in partes punctales dividi, sed disputat ad rationem Platonis, qui fuit huius opinionis quod corpus componeretur ex superficiebus et superficies ex lineis et linea ex punctis, quod ipse improbat in libro Physicorum, ubi ostendit quod punctum additum puncto nihil addit);
114. Aristotle says “points” not because he thought that a magnitude could be partitioned into points, but as disputing with Plato, who regarded bodies as composed of planes, planes of lines, and lines of points (an opinion refuted by Aristotle in Physics 6, where it is shown that a point added to a point adds nothing).1
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115. si vero intelligit contingens secundum partes quantitativas, tunc, cum quaelibet pars dividatur in multas partes, sequitur quod multotiens intelligat idem; item, cum omnis quantitas sit divisibilis in infinitum secundum eamdem proportionem et non secundum eamdem quantitatem, sequitur quod infinities intelligat, quod est inconveniens. Videtur ergo quod non contingat nisi semel. Et sic nullo modo debet attribui intellectui magnitudo neque quantum ad multa intelligibilia neque quantum ad unum.
115. But if the intellect understands by touching with quantitative parts, then, as each part is divisible into many, it must understand the same object many times over. Again, since any quantity is infinitely divisible into parts that are proportionately, not quantitatively, the same, it would follow that the intellect understands the same thing an infinite number of times—which raises difficulties. It seems then that it touches its object once only and that it cannot be called a magnitude, either with respect to many intelligibles or to only one.
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116. Et notandum quod hic occulte Aristoteles ostendit quod intellectus de natura sua non est partibilis, sed quid impartibile. Intelligibile enim in unaquaque re est quidditas, et natura rei est tota in qualibet parte, sicut natura speciei tota est in quolibet individuo (tota enim natura hominis est in quolibet individuo), et hoc est indivisibile; unde id quod est intelligibile in qualibet re est indivisibile, et per consequens intellectus.
116. Notice that Aristotle is implying here that intellect is indivisible of its nature. What is intelligible in any thing is its “whatness” or nature, which is present wholly in every part of it, as the specific nature is wholly present in each individual of the species, for the whole nature of man is in each individual man, and the individual as such is indivisible. Hence, what is intelligible in anything is indivisible; and therefore, so is the intellect.
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117. Tertiam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius quomodo intelliget etc., quae talis est. Constat quod si nos ponimus intellectum impartibilem, de facili patebit ratio quomodo intelligat impartibile et partibile, quia impartibile intelliget secundum proprietatem suae naturae quae impartibilis est, ut dictum est, partibile vero abstrahendo a partibili.
117. The third argument comes at again, how (407a18). Granted that the intellect is indivisible, we can easily see how it can understand both the indivisible and the divisible. For it understands the indivisible in virtue of its own nature, which is indivisible, and it understands the divisible by abstracting it from what is divisible.
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Sed si intellectus ponitur partibilis secundum quod Plato vult, impossibile erit invenire rationem quomodo intelligat impartibile. Et sic videtur quod inconvenienter Plato ponat intellectum esse magnitudinem seu partibilem.
But once we allow, with Plato, that intellect is divisible, it becomes impossible to understand how it can understand the indivisible. Hence the difficulty of admitting Plato’s position that the intellect is a magnitude and divisible.
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118. Quartam rationem ponit cum dicit: necessarium autem etc., quae talis est. Tu dicis intellectum esse circulum et dicis intellectum moveri; sed motus circuli est circulatio, motus vero intellectus est intelligentia; ergo si intellectus est circulus, de necessitate intelligentia erit circulatio. Sed hoc est falsum, quia, cum in circulatione non sit invenire actu principium neque finem, ut probatur in VIII Physicorum, sequeretur etiam quod intelligentia seu operatio intellectus, quae est intelligere, numquam terminaretur; sed hoc est falsum, quia intelligentia habet actu et principium et finem; ergo intelligentia et circulatio non sunt idem, et per consequens nec intellectus est circulus.
118. The fourth argument begins at it is necessary (407a19). It runs thus. You say that intellect is circular and in movement. Now the movement of circles is a circling and that of the intellect is understanding; hence, if intellect is a circle, understanding must be a circling. But this is false; for, since circular movement has no actual beginning or end, as is shown in the Physics, book 8, it would follow that understanding, the proper act of the intellect, never reached a term.1 But understanding has an actual beginning and end: hence it is not the same as circular movement, and therefore, the intellect is not a circle.
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119. Quod autem intelligentia habeat principium et finem actu, probatur, quia omnis intelligentia aut est practica aut speculativa. Sed constat quod practicarum intelligentiarum termini sunt, id est fines: nam omnes sunt alterius causa, scilicet operis, et ad opus terminantur. Speculativae autem intelligentiae finem habent, scilicet rationes: omnes enim terminantur ad aliquas rationes, quae quidem rationes aut sunt definitio, scilicet in simplici intelligentia, aut demonstratio, scilicet cum componit et dividit; sed demonstrationes primae ex principiis certis sunt et habent quodam modo finem syllogismum aut conclusionem.
119. That understanding has an actual beginning and end can be proved in this way. All thinking is either practical or speculative. Clearly, all practical thinking reaches a term, that is, an end; for it is each being for the sake of something else, namely a work to be done, and in this work it terminates. While speculative understanding too has its end, namely accounts; for it is always limited in certain accounts: either in a definition, when the intellect simply apprehends something, or in demonstration, when it combines and distinguishes things. But demonstrations begin from certain first principles and have as their term a syllogism or a conclusion.
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120. Et si dicatur quod ex una conclusione sequitur alia et sic non terminatur, nihilominus tamen potest dici quod conclusiones non sunt circulares (quia non est circulatio intelligentiae, ut probatur in I Posteriorum), sed tendunt in rectum et impossibile est in rectum invenire motum infinitum seu processum.
120. If it be objected that one conclusion follows another, and thus there is no definite end, I answer that conclusions are nevertheless not circular. For, as is shown in Posterior Analytics 1, demonstration cannot go in a circle; it always goes in a straight line, and an infinite movement or progression in a straight line is impossible.1
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121. Definitiones etiam habent principium et finem, quia non est ascendere in infinitum in generibus, sed accipitur quasi primum genus generalissimum, nec etiam descendere in infinitum in speciebus, sed est stare in specie specialissima; unde genus generalissimum est principium, species specialissima sicut terminus seu finis in definitionibus. Et sic patet quod omnis intelligentia principium habet et finem actu.
121. Definitions too have a beginning and an end, for you cannot go on to infinity in the enumeration of genera; the most general genus has to be taken as the first one. Similarly, in enumerating species, you cannot particularize to infinity, but must stop at the most specific species. Hence, the most general genus is the beginning, and the most specific species is the terminus or end in definitions. Clearly, then, every act of the understanding has an actual starting point and end.
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122. Quintam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem si eadem etc., quae pendet quodam modo ex praecedenti et est quasi quoddam membrum eius. Supra enim probatum est quod, si intellectus est circulus sicut Plato posuit, intelligentia erit circulatio; et probavit superiori ratione quod intelligentia non est circulatio. Et hoc idem probat hic tali ratione.
122. The fifth argument begins at further, if (407a31). In a sense, this argument depends on the previous one and is a part of it. It has been shown that if the intellect were a circle, as Plato thought, understanding would be a circling; and in the preceding argument, Aristotle has shown that understanding is not a circling, which he now proves once more in the following way.
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Videmus quod haec differentia est inter circulationem et alios motus, quia impossibile est in aliis motibus unum et eumdem motum reiterari super eamdem quantitatem multotiens. Et hoc apparet deducendo per singulas species motus. In alteratione enim impossibile est eumdem motum super idem reiterari; non enim idem secundum idem de albo fit nigrum et de nigro album. In motu etiam augmenti impossibile est unum et idem secundum idem augmentari et diminui. In motu etiam locali impossibile est eumdem motum secundum idem reiterari, quia in motu locali secundum rectum semper sunt duo termini in actu, unde, si reiteraretur, oporteret termino ad quem uti bis, quia ut fine et principio, et de necessitate interveniret ibi quies, et sic non esset idem motus numero. In circulatione vero solum hoc contingit quod unus et idem motus secundum eamdem quantitatem multotiens reiteratur; cuius ratio est quia in circulatione non sunt aliqui termini actu et ideo, quantumcumque reiteratur, non intervenit quies nec variatur motus.
The difference between a circular motion and any other motion lies in this, that the latter can never be repeated on the same quantity. This becomes clear if we think of the different kinds of movement in particular. Thus the movement of alteration cannot be repeated in the same subject in the same respect; for the same thing is not in the same respect changed from white to black and black to white. So, too, in the movement of growth, the same thing cannot in the same respect both increase and diminish. So also in local movement; if this goes in a straight line, it must have two actual terms; and if it is to be repeated, the term at the end of the movement must be used twice, once as end and once as beginning, and, since there must intervene a moment of rest at that term, it is not exactly the same movement. In circular motion alone can one and the same movement be many times repeated according to the same quantity; the reason being that in circular motion there are no actual terms; hence, no matter how often it is repeated, no interval of rest intervenes nor does the motion vary in any way.
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123. Ex hoc ergo sic arguit: tu dicis quod intellectus est circulus; ergo et intelligentia circulatio; sed inconveniens est, scilicet quod intelligentia sit circulatio; ergo et primum.
123. This being granted, Aristotle argues as follows. If you say that the intellect is a circle, then the act of thinking must be a circular motion. But this consequence is not admissible; therefore, neither is the premise.
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124. Quod sit inconveniens, sic ostendit: constat quod eadem circulatio secundum unum et idem multotiens est, id est reiteratur; ergo, si intelligentia est circulatio, sicut tu dicis, intelligentia multotiens <est> secundum unum et eumdem motum et super idem multotiens reiterabitur et sic multotiens intelliget idem: intellectus enim movendo se tangit et tangendo intelligit, sicut ipsi dicunt, et circulariter multotiens tangit idem et sic multotiens intelliget idem, quod est inconveniens.
124. He then shows that the consequence is not admissible. Granted, he says, that the same revolving occurs many times over, that is, repeated, in the same respect; if thinking, then, is a circular movement, as you say, it will be repeated again and again as one and the same movement bearing upon one and the same object; and so the intellect will think the same thing many times over. For the intellect, in moving, touches, and by this touching, it understands, as they say. If, then, its motion is circular, it touches and understands the same thing over and over again, which gives rise to difficulties.
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125. Sextam rationem ponit cum dicit: adhuc autem intelligentia etc., quae talis est. Si intelligentia est circulatio, ut tu dicis, debet assimilari motui; sed nos videmus totum contrarium, quia intelligentia magis assimilatur quieti quam motui; ergo intelligentia non est circulatio.
125. The sixth argument, at moreover, intelligence (407a32), is as follows. If understanding is, as you say, a circular motion, it should be associated with movement, but in fact the contrary is true; understanding is more like rest, so understanding is not a circling.
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Quod autem magis assimiletur quieti quam motui, patet, quia, sicut ipse ostendit in VII Physicorum, non potest fieri aliquis sapiens quando motus eius non resident nec quiescunt; unde in pueris et in omnibus in quibus motus non quiescunt, non de facili invenitur sapientia, sed tunc aliquis sapientiam acquirit quando quiescit, unde dicit quod in quiescendo et sedendo anima sapiens fit et prudens.
That it is more like rest than motion Aristotle himself teaches in Physics 7, where he says that someone does not become wise when his motion does not stop and come to rest; this is why boys and all whose motions do not come to rest do not easily become wise.1 Rather, wisdom is acquired when one comes to rest, which is why he says that the soul becomes wise and prudent when resting and sitting still.
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126. Sed quia posset dici quod hoc est verum de simplici intelligentia sed non de syllogismo, ideo Aristoteles dicit quod eodem modo et syllogismus assimilatur magis quieti quam motui; et hoc patet: ante enim quam sit syllogizatum de aliqua re, intellectus et mens hominis fluctuat ad unam et ad aliam partem et non quiescit in aliqua, sed quando iam est syllogizatum, determinate inhaeret uni parti et quiescit in illa.
126. But lest it be said that, while this is true of simple apprehension, it is not true of syllogistic reasoning, he adds that syllogistic reasoning also is more like rest than movement. And this is clear because, before the syllogism is complete, the mind and intellect is swaying from one conclusion to another and resting in neither, but when it is finished syllogizing, it holds on to one conclusion and rests in it.
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127. Septimam rationem ponit cum dicit: at vero neque beatum etc., quae talis est. Constat quod beatitudo animae est <in> intelligendo; sed beatitudo non potest esse in eo quod est violentum et praeter naturam, cum sit perfectio animae; ergo, cum motus non sit secundum naturam et substantiam animae, sed praeter naturam eius, impossibile est quod intelligere, quae est operatio animae et in quo est beatitudo animae, sit motus, ut Plato dicebat. Quod autem motus sit praeter naturam animae, patet ex positione Platonis: ipse enim dixit animam componi ex numeris, et postea dixit eam dispertitam in duos circulos et hos reflexit in septem et ex hoc sequitur motus; ex quo apparet quod motus non inest ei naturaliter, sed per accidens.
127. The seventh argument, at again, that (407a34), runs as follows. It is certain that the soul’s happiness is in understanding. Now, happiness cannot reside in anything violent or contrary to its nature, since it is the soul’s perfection. As, then, movement is not of the soul’s nature and substance, but is contrary to its nature, that activity in which the soul finds its happiness, namely, understanding, cannot be a movement, as Plato maintained. But that movement is against the soul’s nature is implied by Plato’s own position, for he said that the soul was constituted by numbers, and then that it was divided into two circles and was reflected into seven, from which followed movement.1 According to this view, then, movement is in the soul not naturally but accidentally.
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128. Octavam rationem ponit cum dicit: laboriosum autem est etc., quae talis est. Videtur quod secundum opinionem Platonis anima de sua natura non sit unita corpori: nam ipse posuit eam primo compositam ex elementis et postea complexam et adunatam corpori et inde non posse recedere cum vult. Inde sic: quandocumque est aliquid unitum contra naturam suam alicui et non potest inde cum vult recedere, est poenale, et quandocumque aliquid in unione ad aliud deterioratur, est fugiendum et nocivum; sed anima unitur corpori contra naturam suam, ut dictum est, nec potest inde recedere cum vult nec non et deterioratur in unione ad corpus, sicut consuetum est dici a Platonicis et multis ex eis videtur; ergo animae penalae est et fugiendum esse cum corpore. Non est ergo conveniens dictum Platonis, scilicet quod anima composita ex elementis primo, <postea> commisceatur corpori.
128. The eighth argument, at it must be burdensome (407b2), goes as follows. It seems to have been Plato’s view that it was not of the nature of the soul to be joined to the body; for he said that it was first constituted of the elements and then compacted with the body, so that it cannot leave the body at will. Well, then, whenever one thing is united against its nature to another, and cannot leave it at will, the resulting state is a punishment; and whenever a thing deteriorates through its union with another thing the union is harmful and to be avoided. But in this hypothesis, the union of soul and body is contrary to the soul’s nature, nor can the soul break away at will; and the result is bad for the soul, as the Platonists commonly say. Apparently, then, union with the body is a punishment and something to be feared by the soul, which is not congruous with Plato’s statement that the soul is composed of elements and mixed with its body from the beginning.
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129. Nonam rationem ponit cum dicit: immanifesta autem et circulario etc., quae talis est. Plato loquitur de anima universi et dicit eam moveri circulariter; sed secundum opinionem suam, causa quare caelum movetur circulariter est immanifesta, id est non assignatur. Si enim caelum movetur circulariter, aut hoc erit propter principia naturaliter, aut propter finem.
129. The ninth argument, at it is not clear (407b5), is as follows. Plato speaks of the soul of the universe and says it is moved round in a circle. But the cause for the circular movement of the heavens is not clear; that is to say, his opinion does not define the cause of it. For if the heavens are moved in a circle, this must be due either to natural principles or to some final cause.
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Si dicatur quod naturaliter propter principia, aut erit propter naturam animae aut propter naturam corporis caelestis; sed non est propter naturam animae, quia moveri circulariter non inest animae secundum substantiam suam, sed per accidens, quia, ut dictum est, anima movetur per se et secundum suam substantiam motu recto, et deinde aspectum rectum reflexit in circulos; nec etiam propter naturam ipsius corporis caelestis, quia corpus non est causa motus animae, sed anima magis est corpori causa quod moveatur.
If natural principles are the cause, the nature in question will be either that of the soul or of the heavenly bodies. But it cannot be on account of the soul’s nature, for circular movement is not of the substance of the soul but is accidental to it; for, as was said, the soul moves through itself and according to its substance in a straight line which is then bent into circles. Nor can the cause be the nature of the heavenly bodies themselves, for the body is not the cause of the soul’s movement, but rather the soul is the cause of the body’s movement.
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Si autem dicatur quod propter finem, non potest assignari aliquis finis determinatus secundum eum quare sic movetur et non alio motu, nisi quod deus sic voluit eum moveri; sed deus propter aliquam causam dignatus est caelum potius moveri quam manere et moveri sic, id est circulariter, quam alio motu, quam causam Plato non assignat. Sed quia hanc assignare est magis propria aliis rationibus, id est in alio tractatu, scilicet in libro De caelo, ideo dimittamus ipsam ad praesens.
But, if the cause is for the sake of an end, he cannot point to any determinate end in answer to the question why the heavens move in a circle rather than in any other way, unless one brings in the will of God. God has indeed for a certain reason chosen to move the heavens rather than leave them motionless, and to move them in a circular way. But why he does this Plato cannot tell. However, as this matter is better suited to other contexts, that is, to another treatise (namely, On the Heavens), we can leave it aside for the present.1
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130. Decimam rationem ponit cum dicit: illud autem inconveniens accidit etc., quae non solum est contra Platonem sed contra multos alios et est ducens ad inconvenientia et ostendens eorum positiones deficientes; quae talis est. Constat quod inter movens et motum est aliqua proportio et inter agens et patiens et inter formam et materiam similiter; non enim quaelibet forma cuilibet corpori convenit et unitur, neque omne agens agit in omne patiens, neque quodlibet movens movet quodlibet motum, sed oportet quod sit inter ea aliqua communicatio et proportio ex qua hoc sit aptum natum movere, illud vero moveri. Patet autem quod isti philosophi posuerunt animam esse in corpore et movere corpus; cum ergo loquantur de natura animae, videtur etiam necessarium quod aliquid dixissent de natura corporis, propter quam causam uniatur corpori, quomodo se habeat corpus ad eam et quomodo comparetur corpus ad animam. Non ergo sufficienter determinant de anima dum conantur dicere solum quale quid sit anima et negligunt ostendere quale quid sit corpus suscipiens ipsam,
130. The tenth argument starts at another absurdity (407b13). It is effective not only against Plato, but also against many others. It runs thus. It is clear that there must always be some proportion between mover and moved, agent and patient, form and matter. Not every form suits every body in the same way, nor does every agent act upon every patient. Nor, again, does every principle of movement move everything capable of receiving movement. In each case, there must be some correlation and proportion between them by which the one is naturally the mover but the other the moved. Now obviously these philosophers admitted that the soul was in the body and moved it. Since, then, they spoke of the nature of the soul, this explanation is necessary that they should also have had something to say about the nature of the body: about the cause of the soul being joined to the body and how the body is related to and contrasts with the soul. Their study of the soul was inadequate so long as they only endeavored to state what the soul is and neglected to explain the nature of the body that receives it.
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131. ex quo contingit eis illud quod in fabulis Pythagoricis habetur, quod quaelibet anima in quodlibet corpus ingrediatur, puta si casu contingat in corpus elephantis intrare animam muscae. Quamvis hoc non possit esse, cum unumquodque corporum et maxime animalium habeat propriam formam et propriam speciem et proprium movens et proprium motum, et multum differat corpus vermis a corpore canis et corpus elephantis a corpore pulicis. Hoc tamen dicentes, scilicet quod quaelibet anima quodlibet corpus ingreditur, simile dicunt sicut si quis dicat artem textivam ingredi in fistulas et aerariam in telaria; et tamen si ipsis artibus inesset natura ingredi <in> corpora seu organa ex se ipsis, non quaelibet in quodlibet ingrederetur, sed fistulativa ingrederetur <in> fistulas, non in lyras, cytharativa autem in cytharas et non in fistulas. Eodem igitur modo si animae cuilibet sit corpus, unaquaeque anima proprium corpus ingreditur, immo ipsa anima idoneum format sibi corpus et non assumit paratum. Sic ergo Plato et alii philosophi loquentes tantum de animae natura, insufficienter dixerunt, non determinantes quod corpus sit conveniens cuilibet animae et qualiter et quale existens uniatur sibi.
131. Indeed, we may associate their thesis (Aristotle goes on to say) with the Pythagorean fable that any soul can enter any body; the soul of a fly for instance might perchance enter the body of an elephant. This cannot in fact happen; for the body of each particular thing, and especially of living things, has its own proper form and species and type of movement: hence, there are great differences between the bodies of a worm, a dog, an elephant, and a gnat. When they say that any soul can enter any body, it is like saying that the art of weaving could enter flutes, or that the art of the coppersmith could enter a weaver’s loom. If it was in the power of these arts to enter bodies or instruments they would not do so indiscriminately, but the art of playing the flute would enter flutes and not lyres, while the art of playing stringed instruments would enter stringed instruments and not flutes. In the same way, if there is a body for every soul, any soul does not enter any body, but rather, the soul shapes the body fit for itself; it does not enter a ready-made body.1 Plato and the others who speak only about the soul are too superficial; they fail to define which body answers to which soul and the precise mode of existence of each in union with the other.
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L. 9 (Α.4, 407b27–408a34)Theory of soul as harmony
Quorumdam minus recte de anima philosophantium opinionem variis argumentis reprobat, qui eam esse harmoniam existimaverunt
Theory of soul as harmony
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Alia autem quaedam opinio tradita est de anima, credibilis quidem multis et neque una minor his quae dictae sunt, rationes autem tamquam directas praebens et in communi factis rationibus. Harmoniam enim quamdam dicunt.
There is another opinion handed down about the soul, acceptable to many, and in no way inferior to the theories already discussed, yet chastised, as it were, and condemned, even in public discussions. For some call the soul a kind of harmony.
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Et enim harmoniam temperamentum et compositionem contrariorum esse, et corpus componi ex contrariis.
And they say that harmony is a composition or tempering of opposites and that the body is compounded of opposites.
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Et quidem harmonia quaedam ratio compositorum est aut compositio, animam autem neutrum possibile est esse horum.
Yet a harmony is either a proportion in the components of a compound or the composition itself; and the soul cannot be either of these.
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Amplius autem movere non est harmoniae, animae autem attribuunt hoc omnes.
Further, movement, which all attribute to the soul, does not pertain to harmony.
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Congruit autem magis de sanitate dicere harmoniam, et omnino de corporeis virtutibus, quam de anima. Manifestum autem si aliquis temptaverit reddere passiones et opera animae harmonia quadam: difficile enim adaptare.
It would be more appropriate to call health a harmony, and in general, the powers of the body rather than those of the soul. This is evident if one tries to explain the passions and activities of the soul by some harmony: it is difficult indeed to correlate these.
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Amplius autem dicimus harmoniam in duo respicientes. Maxime quidem propria magnitudinum in habentibus motum et positionem, compositionem ipsorum, cum sic congruant ut nullum congeneum praetermittatur. Hinc autem et eorum quae miscentur rationem. Neutro quidem igitur modo rationabile.
Further, we speak of harmony with two considerations in mind. Primarily, as something proper to magnitudes in things that have motion and position, their composition, so that nothing is missing that is becoming to them. Second, the ratio of this composition. In neither way is this reasonable.
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Compositio autem partium corporis multum investigabilis est: multae enim compositiones partium et multipliciter sunt; cuius igitur et quomodo congruit accipere intellectum compositionem esse aut et sensitivum et appetitivum? Similiter autem et inconveniens et rationem mixtionis esse animam. Non enim eamdem habet rationem commixtio elementorum secundum quam caro et secundum quam os; accidet igitur multas animas habere. Et secundum omne corpus, si quidem omnia ex elementis commixta1 sunt, commixtionis autem ratio harmonia et anima.
The composition of the parts of the body is very easy to examine, for there are many and various such compositions. Of what and how can one suppose the intellect to be a composition? Or sensation? Or appetite? It is no less absurd to account the soul the ratio of a composition. The synthesis of elements for bone does not have the same ratio as that for flesh. There would have to be many souls in one body, and indeed, a soul for every body, if each is a mixture of elements and the ratio of the mixture is a harmony and a soul.
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Investigabit autem hoc utique aliquis ab Empedocle. Unumquodque enim horum ratione quadam dicit esse; utrum igitur ratio anima est, aut magis alterum aliquod cum sit, in partibus fit?
One might at this point question Empedocles. He says that each of these exists in virtue of a ratio. Is this ratio then the soul, or is soul some other thing, thus inborn in the members?
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Amplius autem utrum concordia cuiuslibet mixtionis causa, aut eius quae secundum rationem?
Or further: is concord the cause of any chance combination or only of one based on some ratio?
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Et haec utrum ratio est, aut alterum aliquid praeter rationem? Haec quidem igitur habent huiusmodi dubitationes.
And whether this concord is the ratio of the composition or something else? These are the kinds of problem involved in this hypothesis.
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Si vero alterum anima est a mixtione, quid igitur simul carni esse interimitur et aliis partibus animalis? Ad haec autem si quidem non unaquaeque partium habet animam, si non est anima ratio compositionis, quid est propter quod corrumpitur, anima deficiente?
But if the soul is other than the composition, why does it perish together with the essence of flesh and of other parts of the body? Moreover, granted that each of these parts has a soul, if the soul is not the ratio of the whole composition, what is it that is corrupted when the soul departs?
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Quod quidem igitur non harmoniam possibile est esse animam neque circulariter moveri, manifestum est ex dictis. Secundum accidens autem moveri, sicut diximus, est, et movere se ipsam, ut moveri quidem in quo est, hoc autem moveri ab anima; aliter autem non est possibile moveri secundum locum ipsam.
It is evident, then, from what has been said, that the soul cannot be a harmony or move in a circle. It can, however, be moved and move itself accidentally, insofar as what it dwells in moves and is moved by the soul. In no other way can it move in place.
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132. Alia autem quaedam opinio etc. Postquam Philosophus reprobavit opinionem Platonis, hic consequenter reprobat quamdam aliam opinionem conformem opinioni Platonis quantum ad aliquid. Fuerunt enim quidam qui dixerunt quod anima erat harmonia; et isti concordaverunt cum Platone in hoc quod Plato dixit quod anima erat composita ex numeris harmonicis, hi vero quod erat harmonia; sed differebant in hoc quod Plato dixit quod anima erat harmonia numerorum, hi vero quod harmonia tam compositorum quam contrariorum erat anima.
132. There is another opinion (407b27). After rejecting Plato’s theory, the Philosopher here disposes of another opinion rather similar to Plato’s. For certain philosophers thought the soul was a harmony, agreeing so far with Plato’s view that the soul was composed of harmonic numbers, and yet differing from him in that, while he spoke only of a numerical harmony, they extended the principle to include harmonies of compounds, mixtures, and contrary qualities.
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Circa hoc autem tria facit:
Concerning this, he does three things:
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primo enim ponit opinionem istorum et rationem opinionis;
first, he puts forth their opinion and the reason for their opinion;
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secundo vero disputat contra opinionem, ibi: et quidem harmonia etc;
second, he disputes against this opinion, at yet a harmony (407b32; [135]);
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tertio vero ostendit quomodo haec opinio est multum probabilis, ibi: si vero alterum anima etc.
third, he shows how this opinion is much more probable, at but if the soul (408a24; [144]).
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133. Circa primum duo facit.
133. Concerning the first, he does two things.
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Primo enim ponit dictam opinionem de anima dicens quod quaedam opinio tradita est ab antiquis de anima, quae videbatur habere rectas rationes, et non solum in speciali de anima, sed etiam quantum ad id quod commune est ad omnia principia. Et dicit quantum ad id quod commune est, quia antiqui philosophi nihil tractaverunt de causa formali, sed tantum de materiali;
First, then, he tells us of another opinion handed down from the early philosophers about the soul, which seemed to contain correct accounts not only about the soul specifically but also about something common to all the principles. He says, “something common,” because the early philosophers said nothing about formal causes, treating only of material causes.
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et inter omnes illi qui magis visi sunt appropinquare ad causam formalem fuerunt Democritus et Empedocles, qui, scilicet Empedocles, posuit quod omnia constabant ex sex principiis quorum quatuor posuit materialia, scilicet quatuor elementa, et duo, scilicet amicitiam et litem, partim materialia et partim activa; et dicebant quod haec principia materialia habebant inter se quamdam proportionem quae resultabat ex eis ita quod conveniebant in aliquo uno, quia sine hoc non possent esse simul, et hanc dicebant formam rerum et harmoniam quamdam esse. Unde et sicut de aliis formis, sic dicebant de anima quod erat harmonia quaedam.
Democritus and Empedocles were the two who seem to have come nearest to treating of the formal cause. The latter reduced everything to six principles, of which four—the elements—were material and two were formal, namely the partly active and partly material principles, friendship and strife. And the material elements had, they said, within themselves a certain proportion that resulted from them such that they agreed in a certain unity, since without this they could not exist together. And this proportion they called the form and a kind of harmony of things. Whence also they said that the soul was a sort of harmony, like other forms.
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134. Secundo cum dicit: et enim harmoniam etc., ponit rationem huius opinionis, dicens quod harmonia est complexio et proportio et temperamentum contrariorum in compositis et mixtis; et haec proportio quae est inter ista contraria dicitur harmonia et forma illius compositi; unde, cum anima sit quaedam forma, dicebant ipsam esse harmoniam. Dicitur autem haec opinio fuisse cuiusdam Dynarchi et Simmias et Empedoclis.
134. Then, at and they say that harmony (407b30), he states the reason for this opinion: harmony is the combination, and proportion, and tempering of contraries in compounds and mixtures. The proportion that is between these contraries is called a harmony and is the form of the compound; and because the soul is a kind of form, they said it was a harmony. Such was apparently the view of Dynarchus, Simiates, and Empedocles.
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135. Consequenter cum dicit: et quidem harmonia etc., disputat contra opinionem praedictam. Et circa hoc duo facit:
135. Next, at yet a harmony (407b32), he begins to criticize it:
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primo enim disputat generaliter ad positionem dictorum philosophorum;
first, in a general way, relative to the position of the philosophers mentioned;
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secundo vero in speciali ad ponentem, scilicet contra Empedoclem, ibi: investigabit autem hoc etc.
and second, at one might (408a18; [141]), with particular reference to Empedocles, who formulated it.
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Ad positionem autem obiicit quatuor rationibus, quarum prima talis est. Constat quod harmonia proprie dicta est consonantia in sonis; sed isti transumpserunt istud nomen ad omnem debitam proportionem tam in rebus compositis ex diversis partibus quam in commixtis ex contrariis; secundum hoc ergo harmonia potest duo dicere, quia vel ipsam compositionem aut commixtionem vel proportionem ipsius compositionis seu commixtionis. Sed constat quod neutrum istorum est anima. Ergo anima non est harmonia. Quod autem anima non sit compositio sive proportio compositionis, patet: isti enim accipiunt animam ut substantiam quamdam; sed illa duo sunt accidentia; non sunt ergo idem.
The position is attacked with four arguments. The first is as follows. It is clear that harmony, properly speaking, is a consonance within sounds, but they transferred the name to every due proportion, either in things composed of different parts or in mixtures of contraries. On this view, then, “harmony” can say two things: either it is the composition or mixture itself, or it is the proportion existing in the composition or mixture. But the soul is clearly neither of these; therefore, it is not a harmony. The clear reason why the soul cannot be either the composition or the proportion of the composition is that they take the soul as a certain substance, whereas these are both accidents; so they are not the same thing.
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136. Secundam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem movere etc., quae talis est. Constat quod omnes philosophi dicunt quod anima movet; sed harmonia non movet, immo relinquitur ex movente et sequitur, sicut ex motu chordarum qui est per musicum relinquitur harmonia quaedam in sono et ex applicatione et contemperatione partium a componente relinquitur proportio quaedam in composito; ergo, si anima est harmonia et haec relinquitur ex harmonizatore, oportebit ponere aliam animam quae harmonizet.
136. The second argument begins at further, movement (407b34). All philosophers agree that the soul moves something. But harmony does not move anything; rather, it is a result and trace of a mover, just as in music the movement of strings leaves its trace in harmonious sound. And the putting together and coadaptation of parts by some composing agent results in a certain proportional composition. If, then, the soul were a harmony resulting from some producer of harmony, we should have to posit another soul in the producer of the harmony.
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137. Tertiam rationem ponit cum dicit: congruit autem etc., quae talis est. Philosophus enim dicit in IV Physicorum: quicumque assignat definitionem seu naturam rei, oportet quod illa assignatio, si sufficiens est, conveniat operationibus et passionibus illius rei; tunc enim definitur optime quid est res quando non solum cognoscimus substantiam et naturam ipsius rei, sed etiam passiones et accidentia eius. Si ergo anima est harmonia quaedam, oportet quod per cognitionem harmoniae deveniamus in cognitionem operationum et accidentium animae; sed hoc est valde difficile, ut puta si velimus operationes animae in harmoniam referre: cuius enim harmoniae erit sentire et cuius amare aut odire et intelligere? Sed per cognitionem harmoniae magis congruit venire in cognitionem accidentium corporum, ut si velimus cognoscere sanitatem dicemus quod est complexio adaequata et contemperata humorum et qualitatum in corpore, et sic de aliis corporeis virtutibus. Et sic harmonia magis esset attribuenda corpori quam animae.
137. The third argument comes at it would be more appropriate (408a1). In Physics 4, the Philosopher says that if the definition or nature of anything is to be adequate, it must answer to that given thing’s activities and to what it can suffer from other things; for what a thing is, is best defined when we know not only the substance and nature of the thing itself but also its accidents and passions.1 If, then, the soul were a harmony, we ought to be able to work out its activities and accidents from our knowledge of this harmony. But this is extremely difficult; if, for example, we want to derive the activities of the soul from harmony, to what harmony does feeling and loving, hating,2 or understanding belong? It would be more appropriate indeed to come to know the accidents of the body through knowing the harmony. For example, if we wish to know health, we will say that it is the duly proportioned and equally balanced commingling of the body’s humors and qualities, and likewise with the powers of the body. Thus, harmony should be attributed to the body more than to the soul.
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138. Quartam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem dicimus etc., quae talis est. Harmonia invenitur aliquando in compositis et habentibus positionem et motum, quia quando haec sic invicem simul ponuntur et ordinantur ut nihil congeneum <praetermittatur>;, id est ut nullus defectus eiusdem generis ibi sit, tunc illae partes dicuntur bene harmonizatae et compositio ipsarum nominatur harmonia, sicut ligna et lapides et alia corpora naturalia; sic etiam et chordae quando bene ordinatae sunt (seu fistulae), ut exinde consonantia sonorum resultet, dicuntur bene harmonizatae et huiusmodi consonantia dicitur harmonia; et hoc modo proprie dicitur harmonia.
138. The fourth argument starts at further, we speak (408a5). Harmony is sometimes found in things that have motion and position, when, that is, such things are so placed and arranged that nothing is missing that is becoming to them, that is, no defect occurs within the genus of the thing in question. The parts then are said to be well harmonized and the whole composition is called a harmony, for example, of wood or stones or1 other natural bodies. In the same way, when stringed instruments or flutes are well-tuned, so that a consonant of sounds results, they are said to be well-harmonized, and the consonance is called a “harmony.” This is the proper meaning of the word.
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Aliquando autem invenitur in corporibus mixtis ex contrariis; quando enim aliqua contraria sunt complexa et commixta in aliquo ita ut nulla repugnantia seu excessus alicuius contrarii sit ibi, ut puta calidi aut frigidi aut humidi aut sicci, tunc illa dicuntur bene harmonizata et horum ratio, id est proportio, dicitur harmonia. Si ergo anima est harmonia, secundum aliquem istorum modorum dicetur; sed constat quod neutro istorum modorum rationabile est animam dici harmoniam; ergo male dicunt animam harmoniam esse.
Sometimes, again, harmony is found in mixtures of contraries; for when contraries are so combined and mixed that no incompatibility remains nor any excess of any one of them, for example, of heat or cold or moisture or dryness; then they are said to be harmonized well and their ratio, that is, the proportion, is called a “harmony.” So, if the soul is a harmony, it must be in one of these ways. But it is certain that it cannot rationally be so called in either of these ways. Those philosophers therefore spoke amiss.
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139. Et quod neutro istorum modorum anima dicatur harmonia, patet. Non enim anima potest dici harmonia secundum quod invenitur in rebus compositis et habentibus positionem: nam ordo partium compositarum in corpore est valde manifestum, facile enim scire ordinem ossium ad ossa et nervorum ad nervos et brachii ad manum et carnis ad ossa; sed ratio ordinis partium animae est nobis immanifesta, non enim per hoc possumus scire ordinem qui est inter intellectum et sensum et appetitum et huiusmodi.
139. Clearly, the soul should not be called a harmony in either of these modes. For the soul cannot be called a harmony in the way it is found in compounds and things with position. For, in the body, the order of the various parts of the composite is quite evident; for we can easily know the order of the bones or the nerves, what the arm is to the hand and the flesh to the bones. On the other hand, the account of the order of the parts of the soul is obscure; for the order that is between the intellect, sensation, appetite, and such we cannot know from that.
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140. Nec etiam potest dici harmonia secundum proportionem corporum commixtorum ex contrariis, et hoc duplici ratione.
140. Nor can the soul be called a harmony in the same way as the proportion in bodies compounded of a mixture of contraries; and this is for two reasons.
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Una ratio est, quia diversa proportio invenitur in diversis partibus corporis: nam commixtio elementorum non habet eamdem rationem, id est proportionem, secundum quam est caro et secundum quam est os; ergo in diversis partibus erunt diversae animae.
One reason is that a different proportion is to be found in different parts of the living body; for the mixture of elements does not have the same ratio, or proportion, to form flesh as to form bone; and consequently, there would be different souls for the different parts.
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Alia ratio est, quia omnia corpora sunt commixta ex elementis et contrariis; si ergo proportio commixtionis in quolibet corpore est harmonia et harmonia est anima, ergo in quolibet corpore erit animal quod est inconveniens. Et sic patet quod inconvenienter dicunt animam esse harmoniam.
The other reason is that all bodies are a mixture of elements and contraries; hence, if the proportion of the mixture in each body is a harmony, and each harmony is a soul, there will be no body without a soul, which is incongruous. It is incongruous, therefore, to call the soul a harmony.
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141. Consequenter cum dicit: investigabit autem etc., disputat contra Empedoclem et ponit contra eum tres quaestiones quas non deducit.
141. Next, at one might at this point (408a18), Aristotle attacks Empedocles by drawing three unforeseen consequences from his account of the matter.
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Quarum prima talis est. Ipse ponit quodlibet corpus consistere ratione, id est proportione, quadam, quam dicit harmoniam, et hanc dicit animam. Quaero ergo utrum anima sit ipsa ratio, id est proportio, commixtionis, aut aliquid aliud a proportione? Si tu dicis quod est ipsa proportio, tunc, cum in uno corpore sunt diversae proportiones secundum diversas partes, sequuntur dicta inconvenientia, scilicet quod multae animae sint in uno corpore secundum diversas partes, et quod in quolibet mixto sit anima. Si dicas quod est aliud quam proportio, tunc, cum proportio sit harmonia, anima non erit harmonia.
The first is this. If you maintain that every body has a certain ratio, that is, a proportion, which you call “harmony” and identify with the soul, I put the question to you whether the soul itself is this ratio or proportion, or something else. If you answer that it is the proportion itself, then, since in the same body there are different proportions for the different parts, two difficulties arise: there will be many souls in the same body, and there will be a soul for every compound. But if you answer that the soul is not the proportion itself, then, since the proportion is the harmony, the soul will not be a harmony.
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142. Secundam quaestionem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem utrum etc., quae talis est. Empedocles ponebat quod amicitia esset causa congregationis in rebus et lis causa segregationis. Sed in congregatione fit aliqua proportio. Quaero ergo utrum amicitia sit causa cuiuslibet congregationis aut tantum congregationis harmonizatae? Si tu dicas quod amicitia est causa cuiuslibet congregationis, tunc oportebit ponere aliquod aliud ab amicitia quod causet huiusmodi proportionem et harmoniam in congregationibus harmonizatis, vel erit dicere quod huiusmodi harmonizatio est a casu. Si tu dicas quod est causa solum congregationis harmonizatae, tunc amicitia non erit causa omnis congregationis, quod est contra eum.
142. The second argument begins at or further (408a21). Empedocles had asserted that the cause of unification in things is friendship and the cause of separation is strife. Now, in a unification a certain proportion arises. I ask you, then, whether friendship is the cause of any and every unification or only of such unifications as are harmonious. If you answer, “of every union,” then you must find some cause other than friendship for the harmony and proportion in harmonious unions—unless you say that the harmonization occurs by chance. But if you say that concord is the cause of harmonious unifications, then friendship is not the cause of all unifications.
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143. Tertiam quaestionem ponit cum dicit: et haec utrum ratio est etc., quae talis est. Empedocles dicit quod amicitia est quae facit congregationem in rebus. Quaero ergo utrum amicitia sit idem cum ipsa congregatione harmonizata aut non? Si dicatur quod est idem, tunc, cum nihil sit causa sui ipsius, amicitia non erit causa illius congregationis, sicut Empedocles dicebat. Si vero dicatur quod non est idem, contra: congregatio harmonizata nihil aliud est quam convenientia quaedam; amicitia vero videtur esse quaedam convenientia; ergo est idem, et sic idem quod prius.
143. The third argument, at and whether this (408a22), runs as follows. Empedocles says that friendship is what unites things. I ask: is friendship the same as the harmonized unification itself or not? If it is the same, then, since nothing causes its very self, friendship cannot be the cause of the unification, as Empedocles asserted. But suppose it is not the same. Still, harmonious unification is nothing other than a kind of agreement, which seems to be precisely what friendship is too. So they are the same after all, and the preceding argument applies as before.
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144. Consequenter cum dicit: si vero alterum anima est etc., ostendit quomodo haec opinio est multum probabilis. Et circa hoc duo facit.
144. At but if the soul is other (408a24), Aristotle shows how plausible is the theory in question. And concerning this he does two things.
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Primo enim ostendit opinionem huiusmodi esse multum probabilem, dicens quod ideo videtur haec probabilis quia posito uno ponitur alterum et remoto uno removetur alterum; nam recedente ab aliquo corpore harmonia, recedit anima, et permanente harmonia, permanet anima. Sed hoc non sequitur, quia proportio huiusmodi non est forma, sicut ipsi credebant, sed est dispositio materiae ad formam. Et, si accipiatur proportio harmonizatae compositionis pro dispositione, bene sequitur quod manente dispositione materiae ad formam manet forma et destructa dispositione removetur forma, non tamen quod harmonia sit forma, sed dispositio materiae ad formam.
First, its plausibility, he says, relies on the argument that if you grant one thing, another must follow, and if you remove one thing, another is removed. For when a body loses its harmony, it loses its soul, and while its harmony remains, the soul too remains. Yet this does not follow; for this kind of proportion is not, as those philosophers thought, the form, but only the disposition of the matter to the form. And if the proportion of the harmonized composite is being taken for the disposition, then the consequence is quite correct, that, so long as the matter’s disposition to the form remains, the form itself remains, and when the disposition goes, the form also goes. Still, the harmony is not the form but a disposition of the matter to the form.
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145. Secundo cum dicit: quod quidem igitur etc., concludit et epilogat quod anima non movetur circulariter, sicut Plato dixit, nec est harmonia, sicut Empedocles asseruit, movetur autem secundum accidens, sicut diximus supra, et movet se ipsam; et quod moveatur secundum accidens, patet, quia movetur in quantum movetur corpus in quo est, corpus vero movetur ab anima; alio modo non est moveri ipsam secundum locum, nisi per accidens.
145. Second, where he says, it is evident, then (408a29), Aristotle, concluding, summarizes his rejection both of Plato’s view that the soul is moved in a circle and of Empedocles that it is a harmony. The soul, as has been said, is moved and moves itself, accidentally.1 That it is moved accidentally is clear, for it is moved when its body is moved, but the body itself receives movement from the soul. Only accidentally, and in no other way, does the soul move in place.
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L. 10 (Α.4, 408a34–408b31)Theory of soul as a self-mover reconsidered
Destruit illorum sententiam, qui animam per se moveri physice existimaverunt
Theory of soul as a self-mover reconsidered
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Rationabilius autem dubitabit utique aliquis de ipsa tamquam quae movetur, in huiusmodi considerans. Dicimus enim animam tristari, gaudere, confidere, timere, amplius autem irasci et sentire et intelligere; haec autem omnia motus esse videntur, unde opinabitur aliquis ipsam moveri.
One might with more reason inquire about the soul as in movement by considering such facts as these: that the soul is, as we say, sad, joyful, confident, and frightened; or again, that it is angry, senses, and understands. All these seem to be movements, from which one might suppose that the soul is moved.
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Hoc autem non est necesse. Si enim et quam maxime dolere aut gaudere aut intelligere motus sunt, et unumquodque moveri aliquid, moveri autem est ab anima, ut irasci aut timere in eo quod cor quodam modo movetur, intelligere autem huiusmodi forsitan alterum aliquod.
This, however, does not necessarily follow. Even if feeling pain or rejoicing or understanding are in the fullest sense movements, and each of these is a “being moved” (i.e., being angry or fearful occurs by some movement of the heart), this being moved is from the soul. But as for understanding, it is either like this or perhaps it is something else.
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Horum autem accidunt alia quidem secundum loci mutationem quorumdam motorum, alia vero secundum alterationem. Qualia autem et quomodo, alterius rationis est dicere. Dicere autem irasci animam, simile est et si aliquis dicat eam texere vel aedificare. Melius enim fortassis est non dicere animam misereri aut addiscere aut intelligere, sed hominem anima. Hoc autem non tamquam motu in illa, sed aliquando quidem usque ad illam, aliquando autem ab illa, ut sensus quidem ab his, reminiscentia vero ab illa ad motus qui sunt in sensibilibus organis aut quietes.
Of these, however, some occur with a change of place in that which moves; others with an alteration—of what sort or how is another question. But to say that the soul becomes angry is like saying it builds or weaves. For it is perhaps better to say, not that the soul has pity, or learns, or understands, but that a man does so by his soul. These modifications occur by movements not so much in the soul as, in some cases, proceeding to it, and in others, proceeding from it, as sensation proceeds from things, while remembering proceeds from the soul to the motions or rests which occur in the sensitive organs.
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Intellectus autem videtur in fieri substantia quaedam existens, et non corrumpi. Maxime enim corrumperetur utique ab ea quae est in senio debilitate; nunc autem forte quemadmodum in sensitivis accidit: si enim accipiat senior oculum iuvenis, videbit utique sicut et iuvenis. Quare senium non est in sustinendo aliquid animam, sed in quo, sicut in ebrietatibus et infirmitatibus.
But intellect would seem to be a certain substance in the making and would seem not to corrupt. For if it did, it would corrupt especially through the debility accompanying old age. But in fact what happens is similar to the case of the sensitive powers. For if an old man could acquire the eye of a young man, he would see as a young man; hence, senility is not an affliction of the soul but of that which it inhabits, like drunkenness or disease.
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Intelligere igitur et considerare marcescunt alio quodam interius corrupto, ipsum autem impassibile est. Intelligere autem et amare aut odire non sunt illius passiones, sed huiusmodi habentis illud secundum quod illud habet. Quare et hoc corrupto, neque memoratur neque amat; non enim illius erant, sed communis, quod quidem destructum est. Intellectus autem fortassis divinius aliquid et impassibile est.
Understanding and thinking, then, decay by the corruption of something else within, whereas understanding itself cannot be affected. But understanding and loving and hating are not passions of it, but of that which has it, precisely insofar as it has it. Wherefore, when this is corrupted, the soul ceases to remember or love. For these proceeded not from it but from what was common, which latter has been destroyed. But perhaps intellect is something more godlike and unalterable.
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Quod quidem igitur non possibile moveri animam, manifestum est ex his; si autem penitus non movetur, manifestum quoniam neque a se ipsa.
It is now clear that the soul itself cannot be moved. But if it wholly cannot be moved, it is evident that it cannot be self-moving.
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146. Rationabilius autem etc. Postquam philosophus posuit rationes illorum qui dixerunt animam moveri ex eo quod ipsa movet corpus et disputavit contra eos, hic consequenter vult ostendere quod evidentior ratio quod anima moveatur potest sumi ex ipsis operationibus animae. Et circa hoc duo facit:
146. One might with more reason (408a34). After stating and criticizing the arguments of those who thought that, because the soul moves the body, it must itself be in movement, the Philosopher is next concerned to show that a stronger support for the assertion that the soul is able to move might be drawn from considering the soul’s very activities. He divides his treatment into two parts.
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primo enim movet dubitationem illorum qui dixerunt animam moveri ex operibus animae;
He first states the hypothesis of those who said that the soul’s activities are evidence of its movement;
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secundo vero solvit dubitationem huiusmodi quantum ad propositum pertinet, ibi: hoc autem non est necesse etc.
and second, he settles the problem so far as his present purpose requires, at this, however (408b5; [147]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, licet praedicti philosophi dubitaverint utrum anima moveretur ex eo quod movet corpus, tamen rationabilius, id est probabilius, dubitabit aliquis de anima quod moveatur, considerans in huiusmodi quae dicentur, id est in operationibus animae;
First, then, he says that, whereas the philosophers of whom he has been speaking thought that the soul might be in movement from considering the fact that it moved the body, it is more reasonable, that is, more plausible, that someone might inquire whether the soul is moved by considering such facts as these, that is, the activities of the soul itself.
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ex his enim poterit probabiliter ostendi quod anima movetur. Nos enim dicimus animam tristari, gaudere, confidere, id est audere, et timere; amplius autem dicimus ipsam irasci, sentire et intelligere; cum ergo haec omnia sint operationes animae et sint motus quidam, videtur quod anima moveatur. Haec autem dubitatio videtur magis probabilis quam superior; nam illa considerat motum animae ex motu corporis (dicebat enim quod nihil movet nisi moveatur; unde, cum anima moveat corpus, manifestum est quod ipsa movetur), haec vero opinio considerat motum ipsius animae ex operationibus propriis animae.
For from these, one might build up a plausible argument in favor of the soul’s being in movement. For we say that the soul is sad, joyful, confident (that is, daring) and frightened; and again, we say that it is angry, senses, and understands. And since all these are activities of the soul and also certain movements, it would seem that the soul is moved. And this is a more plausible suggestion than the one already discussed. For the latter argued the soul’s movement from the body’s, according to the principle that every mover is itself in motion, so that if the soul moves the body, the soul itself moves. But the opinion now to be considered regards the movement of the soul itself from the standpoint of the soul’s own proper activities.
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147. Consequenter cum dicit: hoc autem non est necesse etc., solvit dubitationem. Circa quod sciendum est quod, quandocumque Aristoteles inquirit veritatem aliquam obiiciendo et solvendo, aliquando obiicit et solvit post determinatam veritatem et tunc obiicit et solvit secundum suam opinionem, aliquando vero ante determinatam veritatem et tunc obiicit et solvit supponendo opiniones aliorum et non secundum suam opinionem et veritatem quam ipse opinatur. Et huius exemplum habemus in III Physicorum, ubi philosophus disputat contra ponentes infinitum et utitur contra eos multis rationibus quae secundum se sunt falsae, licet secundum illos reputentur verae; puta quod omne corpus habet levitatem et gravitatem: cuius ratio est quia hoc, scilicet utrum omne corpus habet levitatem et gravitatem, nondum determinaverat, quod postea determinavit in libro De caelo et ideo reiteravit ibi quaestionem de infinito. Hunc autem modum obiiciendi et solvendi servat hic Aristoteles, unde et procedit contra eos supponendo illorum opiniones:
147. Next, at this, however (408b5), he clears up the difficulty. Here we should note that when Aristotle is searching for truth by a process of stating and answering objections, he will sometimes employ this method after having already determined the truth in question; and then his objections and solutions are governed by his own opinion. But sometimes he does all this before determining the truth, and then he bases his objections and solutions on the opinions of others and not on his own opinion or on what he believes to be the truth. For example, in Physics 3, where he argues against those who maintained the existence of an infinite, he employs a number of arguments that are false in themselves but considered true by his opponents, for example, that every body is both light and heavy.1 For he had not yet determined whether every body has lightness and heaviness; this he did later in On the Heavens, where, in consequence, he reopens the question of the infinite.2 And such is his method here. His criticism rests upon presupposing as true the views of his opponents.
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148. illi enim, et maxime Platonici, opinati sunt quod tristari, gaudere, irasci, sentire et intelligere et huiusmodi quae dicta sunt sint motus animae, et quod quodlibet illorum, etiam intelligere, fiat per organum determinatum et quantum ad hoc non sit differentia inter sensitivam et intellectivam, et quod omnis anima, non solum intellectiva, sit incorruptibilis; Aristoteles vero omnia ista concedit: ipse enim supponit quod huiusmodi operationes fiant per determinata organa, etiam intelligere, et quod omnis anima sit incorruptibilis; hoc tantum negat, scilicet quod huiusmodi operationes, scilicet sentire, gaudere et huiusmodi, non dicit esse animae motus, sed coniuncti, et quantum ad hoc disputat contra eos.
148. These latter, especially the Platonists, thought that sorrow, joy, anger, sensation, and understanding, and so forth, were movements in the soul, and that each of these activities, even understanding, had its own particular organ; and in this respect there was no difference between sensation and intelligence, and every kind of soul, not only the intellectual soul, was immortal. All of which Aristotle grants, for he is supposing that all such activities, even understanding, occur through determinate organs, and that all souls are immortal. He only denies that activities such as sensation and joy are movements in the soul, asserting that they belong rather to the compound of body and soul. This alone he makes the point at issue.
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149. Et circa hoc duo facit:
149. And here he does two things.
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primo enim ostendit quod huiusmodi operationes non sunt motus animae;
First, he shows that the activities in question are not movements of the soul;
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secundo vero probat hoc quodam medio, ibi: intellectus autem etc.
second, he proves this with a special argument, beginning at but intellect (408b18; [163]).
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Dicit ergo quod isti dicunt duo, et primo quod gaudere et tristari et huiusmodi sunt motus, secundo quod haec attribuuntur animae, scilicet quod irascatur, gaudeat, sentiat et huiusmodi; et sic videtur quod anima moveatur. Sed hoc non est necesse, immo utrumque istorum est falsum, scilicet quod neque huiusmodi operationes sunt motus et neque attribuuntur animae; sed dato quod sint motus et loquamur de eis secundum quod sunt motus, nihilominus tamen falsum est quod attribuantur animae et per consequens quod anima secundum huiusmodi operationes moveatur; quod sic patet.
His opponents, he says, maintain two points: first, that joy and sorrow and so forth are movements; second, that these movements are to be attributed to the soul, such that it becomes angry, rejoices, senses, and the like; so it seems that the soul moves. But the conclusion does not necessarily follow (408b5), and in any case, both propositions are false—the activities in question are not movements, nor are such things attributed to the soul. But even granted that they are movements and we might speak of them as though they are motions, still it is false that they are attributed to the soul and, in consequence, that the soul moves according to such activities. This is clear as follows.
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150. Constat enim quod, si huiusmodi operationes sunt motus et attribuantur animae, quod non attribuuntur sibi nisi secundum aliquas determinatas partes corporis; sicut sentire non attribuitur animae nisi in aliqua parte corporis, ut in oculo sensus qui est per visum et irasci in corde, et de aliis similiter manifeste apparet quod non sunt motus animae, sed coniuncti.
150. For it is obvious that, even if these activities are movements and are attributed to the soul, they are attributed to the soul only with respect to certain determinate parts of the body; for example, sensation is attributed to the soul only in certain parts of the body, as the sense of sight is in the eye, anger is in the heart, and so with the rest. It is clear that they are movements not of the soul but of the compound.
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Sunt tamen ab anima, ut puta in hoc quod est irasci: anima enim iudicat aliquid esse dignum ira, cor autem animalis ex hoc movetur et fervet circa ipsum sanguis; sic autem se habet ad timores: nam aliqua particula corporis contrahitur ad terribile et alteratur; et similiter de aliis. Et sic anima non movetur, sed est moveri ab ea in eo quod aliquid, ut cor, quodammodo movetur. Et quia ipse determinabit inferius quod intelligere est quaedam operatio animae in qua non communicat cum corpore et non est coniuncti, ideo dicit quod intelligere forsitan est aliquid alterum ab operationibus coniuncti; et dicit forsitan, quia non loquitur definiendo, sed supponendo. Quia vero dixit quod huiusmodi motus non sunt animae, sed coniuncti, sunt tamen ab anima,
Yet they are from the soul; for example, when the soul judges that anything is worthy of anger, the animal’s heart is disturbed and the blood gets heated around it.1 So also with fear;2 it makes a definite part of the body contract in relation to the fearful object and be altered. And likewise with the rest. In these cases, then, the soul does not move, but the moving is from it in that something else, like the heart, is in some way moved. But in view of a point which Aristotle is going to determine later on,3 namely, that understanding is an activity of the soul in which the body has no share and does not belong to the compound, he observes here that understanding is perhaps something else from all those activities that occur in the compound. He says, perhaps, because he is not speaking definitively but tentatively. But in asserting that the other activities do not belong to the soul but to the composite, he says they do arise from the soul.
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151. ideo cum dicit: horum autem accidunt etc., vult ostendere quod huiusmodi motus corporis ab anima sunt secundum duas species motus: una est secundum loci mutationem, sicut patet in ira: motis [quorumdam] particulis ipsius corporis, scilicet cor, ex ira, sanguis exit ad partes exteriores motus a fervore cordis; alia vero est secundum alterationem, sicut patet in timore: nam cor ad terribile contrahitur et infrigidatur, et alteratur homo et pallescit. Quales autem passiones sint et quomodo moveantur, alterius rationis est dicere. Sic igitur patet quod huiusmodi motus non sunt animae, sed corporis ab anima, ut dictum est.
151. So, when he says, of these (408b9), he means to show that these movements arise from the soul to the accompaniment of changes of place; as in the case of anger, which occurs in the soul when those parts of the body in and around the heart are moved: the blood heated by the heart is dispelled towards the extremities of the body. Others with an alteration, as in fear, when the heart contracts and grows cold at something fearful, and one is altered and turns pale. What these passions1 are, and how they are moved, is another question; but it is clear that, as movements, they do not belong to the soul alone, but to the body from the soul, as was said.
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152. Sicut ergo animal habet operationes corporales et huiusmodi non sunt animae sed corporis seu coniuncti, ita et huiusmodi operationes, scilicet sentire, gaudere et huiusmodi, non debent referri ad animam, sed ad coniunctum. Nam si aliquis dicat animam irasci et secundum huiusmodi operationes moveri, simile est ac si dicat ipsam animam texere vel aedificare aut cytharizare: nam et anima est causa horum motuum, habitus enim aedificativus et textivus et cytharizandi est in ipsa anima, et huiusmodi ab anima sunt. Sed sicut melius est dicere quod aedificator aedificat, non ars, licet aedificator aedificet aedificativa, sic fortassis melius est dicere quod anima non miseretur neque addiscit neque intelligit, sed homo per animam; et dicit fortassis et intelligere, quia loquitur supponendo, ut dictum est.
152. Hence just as any animal’s bodily activities do not belong to the soul but to the body or the composite, so too, activities like sensing, rejoicing, and so forth should not be attributed to the soul but to the composite. For to say that the soul gets angry and is thereby moved is like saying that the soul weaves or builds or plays the harp. For the soul indeed is the cause of these activities; for the habit for building or weaving or playing the harp is in the soul itself, and the exercise of the ability in each case springs from the soul. But as it is better to say that the builder, not the art of building, builds, though the builder builds by his art,1 so perhaps it is better to say that it is not the soul that feels pity or learns or thinks, but the man through his soul. He says, perhaps, as regards understanding, because he is speaking hypothetically, as was said.
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153. Quia vero per hoc quod dicit quod non movetur anima, sed homo per animam, posset intelligi quod motus existeret in anima, ideo removet hoc dicens quod, cum dico hominem moveri anima, non sic dico quasi motus in illa, scilicet in anima, existat, sed quasi ab illa.
153. But since the statement that the soul is not moved, but man is moved by his soul, might be taken to mean that movement exists in the soul, to forestall this, Aristotle explains that when he says that man is moved by his soul, he means that movement is derived, as it were, from the soul, not that it is found in the soul itself.
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154. Cum enim dico: “hoc movetur per hoc,” istud potest dupliciter intelligi, quia aliquando ipsa res quo aliquid movetur, motum sustinet, sicut cum dico hominem moveri pede, quia ipse pes movetur, aliquando ipsa res non sustinet motum, sed impellit aliquid ad motum, et hoc modo homo dicitur moveri per animam;
154. For when I say, “this is moved through that,” my statement can be taken in two senses: either that the very thing by which the thing is moved is itself moving,1 as when I say that a man is moved by his feet, the feet themselves are moving; or that the thing itself is not moving, but it does impel a thing into motion, and it is in this latter sense that a man is said to move through his soul.
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155. et in hoc etiam est duplex motus, quia aliquando anima est ut terminus motus, quando scilicet motus est ad illam, scilicet ad animam, sicut in operatione sensuum: nam quando apprehendit exteriora sensibilia, tunc virtus sensitiva quae est in organo nititur et movetur ad remittendum et reducendum species et intentiones rerum sensibilium usque ad illam, id est ad animam; aliquando vero anima est ut principium motus, quando scilicet est ab illa, id est ab anima, ut est in reminiscentia a qua intentiones et phantasmata rerum occultata et recondita educuntur ad intelligendum res sensibiles; sive autem motus aut quietes dicat aliquis phantasmata huiusmodi derelicta interius, non refert quantum ad praesentem materiam.
155. Now, even this movement is twofold. Sometimes the soul is the motion’s terminus, when the motion is to it, that is, to the soul, as in the activity of the senses; for when it apprehends exterior sense-objects, the sensitive power, which is in the bodily organ, is aroused and moved as transmitting and bringing the species and intentions of sensible realities all the way back to it, that is, to the soul. But sometimes the soul is as the principle of movement, when it is from it, that is, from the soul, as in remembering, when the latent and buried intentions and images of realities are brought back in order that sensible realities may be understood through them. Whether the inward storing away of images should itself be called a movement or a resting is not immediately relevant.
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156. Patet igitur quod huiusmodi motus non attribuuntur animae, sed sunt coniuncti, ab ipsa anima tamen, et non sicut motu existente in anima.
156. Movements of this sort, then, are clearly not to be attributed to the soul but to the composite, yet being from the soul, and not by a movement existing in the soul.
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157. Notandum tamen quod haec solutio praedictae dubitationis non est distinctiva et definitiva, sed obviativa. Sciendum est enim quod motus attribuuntur operationibus animae diversis diversimode. Nam tripliciter invenitur motus in operationibus animae: in quibusdam enim invenitur motus proprie, in quibusdam vero minus proprie, in quibusdam vero minime proprie.
157. But observe that this solution of the problem is not distinct and definitive, but only provisional. For movement should be attributed to the soul’s activities in different ways by different people. In fact, motion is found in the activities of the soul in three ways. In some, movement properly speaking is found; in others, it is found in a less proper sense, and in others, least properly.
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158. Proprie enim invenitur motus in operationibus animae vegetabilis et in appetitu sensitivo. In operatione quidem animae vegetabilis proprie est motus quando movetur in esse naturae per nutrimentum et hic est motus augmenti, et secundum hoc anima vegetabilis se habet ut agens, corpus vero ut patiens. In appetitu autem sensitivo proprie invenitur motus et secundum alterationem et secundum motum localem: nam ad appetitum alicuius rei homo statim movetur et alteratur vel ad iram, sicut in appetitu vindictae, vel ad gaudium, sicut in appetitu delectabilis; item ex hoc movetur etiam sanguis qui est circa cor ad partes exteriores, et etiam homo de loco ad locum ad consequendum illud quod appetit.
158. For movement properly speaking is found in the activities of the vegetative soul and in sensitive desire. In the activity of a vegetative soul there is properly a motion when it is moved to the being of nature through nourishment, and this is the motion of growth; and in this way the vegetative soul stands as the agent and the body as the patient. Motion is also found properly in sensitive desire both through alteration and through changes of place; for at the desire for something a man is immediately moved and altered, whether becoming angry, as in the desire for revenge, or glad, as in the desire of something delightful. Moreover, due to this even the blood is moved outwards from the heart to the extremities of the body, besides the fact that the whole man moves from one place to another in pursuit of what he desires.
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159. Minus vero proprie invenitur motus in operationibus animae sensitivae. In his enim non est motus secundum esse naturae, sed solum secundum esse spirituale, sicut patet in visu cuius operatio non est ad esse naturale, sed spirituale, quia est per species sensibiles secundum esse spirituale receptas in oculo; sed tamen habet aliquid de mutabilitate, inquantum scilicet subiectum virtutis visivae est corpus, et secundum hoc habet rationem motus, licet minus proprie: non enim dicitur motus in his operationibus proprie, nisi cum operatio illa est ad esse naturae.
159. However, motion is less properly found in the activities of the sensitive soul. For here there is no movement according to the existence of nature, but only according to a spiritual existence; this is clear in sight, the activity of which is not with respect to natural existence but to spiritual, since it occurs through sensible species having been received in the eye according to a spiritual existence. Yet it does involve something of changeability, inasmuch as the subject of the power of sight is a body, and in reference to this it has the account of a motion, albeit less properly speaking. For movement is not spoken of in these activities properly except when the activity is with respect to an existence of nature.
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160. Minimum autem de proprietate motus et nihil nisi metaphorice invenitur in intellectu. Nam in operatione intellectus non est mutatio secundum esse naturale sicut est in vegetabili, nec subiectum spirituale quod immutetur sicut est in sensibili,
160. However, the least of what is proper to motion, and nothing but metaphor, is found in understanding. For in the activity of the intellect there is no change in reference to natural existence, as in the case of vegetative activity, nor is there a subject changed in reference to spiritual existence, as in the case of sensible activity.
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sed est ibi ipsa operatio quae quodammodo dicitur motus, inquantum de intelligente in potentia fit intelligens actu; differt tamen a motu, quia operatio est actus perfecti, motus vero est actus imperfecti.
Rather, here there is an activity itself that is called “movement” inasmuch as from potentially understanding it comes to be actually understanding. Yet this differs from motion because the activity is the act of the perfect, whereas motion is the act of the imperfect.
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161. Et ideo patet quomodo operationes animae vegetabilis et sensitivae non sunt motus animae, sed coniuncti; operationes autem intellectus non dicuntur motus nisi metaphorice et sunt solum animae intellectivae absque aliquo determinato organo.
161. It is clear, then, how the activities of the vegetative and sensitive souls are not motions of the soul but of the composite, while the activities of the intellect are only called “motions” metaphorically and are exclusively of the intellectual soul, without any determinate organ.
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162. Sciendum etiam quod sicut in sensu invenitur vis appetitiva et apprehensiva, ita et intellectu invenitur vis appetitiva et apprehensiva; et ideo haec, amor, odium et gaudium et huiusmodi possunt intelligi et prout sunt in appetitu sensitivo et sic habent motum corporalem coniunctum, et prout sunt in intellectu et in voluntate tantum absque omni affectione sensitiva et sic non possunt dici motus, quia non habent motum corporalem coniunctum, et inveniuntur etiam in substantiis separatis, secundum quod in sequentibus melius patebit.
162. Note too that, as an appetitive and apprehensive power are both found in the senses, so too are an appetitive and apprehensive power found in the intellect. Hence, love, hatred, joy, and so forth can be understood either as in the sensitive appetite, and in this sense they have a connected bodily movement, or as only in the intellect and in the will, without any sensitive affect; and in this way they cannot be called “motions,” for they do not have a connected bodily motion. And these are found even in separated substances, as will be shown more clearly later.
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163. Consequenter cum dicit: intellectus autem videtur etc., vult probare ea quae ostendit, scilicet quod huiusmodi operationes, etiam si sint motus sicut ipsi dicebant, non attribuuntur animae, sed corpori et coniuncto; et hoc probat per quamdam opinionem illorum quae erat famosa tempore suo, scilicet quod omnis anima est incorruptibilis, et hoc secundum eos erat de intellectu et de omni anima. Dicit ergo quod videtur praedictis philosophis quod intellectus sit quaedam substantia quae est in fieri et nondum completa et quod non corrumpitur. Cuius ratio est quia nos videmus quod omnes debilitationes quae fiunt circa intellectum et sensum non attingunt ad ipsam animam secundum se, sed proveniunt ex debilitate organi; unde videtur quod intellectus et omnis anima sit incorruptibilis et quod debilitatio in eius operationibus non est ex eo quod ipsa corrumpatur, sed ex eo quod debilitantur organa.
163. Then, at but intellect (408b18), Aristotle sets out to prove what has been shown, namely, that even if activities of this kind are movements (as the philosophers he is discussing maintained), still they are not attributed to the soul but to the body and the composite. So he takes one of their opinions, which was famous in his time, namely, that every soul is incorruptible, as according to them this was true of both the intellect and of every soul. According to these philosophers, the intellect would seem to be a certain substance in the making, still incomplete, and which was not corrupted. The reason for this is that we ourselves see that all the weaknesses that arise surrounding the intellect or the senses do not reach the very soul in itself but come from the weakness of an organ. Whence it would seem to follow that the intellect and every soul is incorruptible, and if its activities grow feeble, that does not imply its own corruption but the weakening of the organs.
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164. Si enim corrumperetur anima, maxime corrumperetur a debilitate quae est in senectute, sicut accidit in organis sensitivis, quae debilitantur ex senectute; tamen anima non debilitatur ex hoc, quia si senex accipiat oculum iuvenis, videbit ut iuvenis; quare senectus debilitat non quidem quod ipsa anima patiatur seu virtus sensitiva, sed id in quo est, sicut in aegritudinibus et in ebrietatibus non debilitatur seu alteratur anima, sed corpus. Sic ergo intelligere, id est simplex apprehensio, et considerare, id est operatio intellectus quae est in componendo et dividendo, marcescunt, non quidem quod intellectus corrumpatur et patiatur, sed corrupto alio quodam interius, idest corrupto aliquo quod est organum intellectus, ipsum autem intelligere est impassibile.
164. For if the soul itself were corrupted, it would corrupt especially through the debility accompanying old age, as happens to the sensitive powers. Yet, in fact, the soul itself is weakened by this, for if an old man could acquire the eye of a young man, he would see as a young man. Whence the decline of old age, then, is not due to a suffering in the soul itself or in the sensitive power, but of that which it inhabits; like in sickness or drunkenness, it is the body, not the soul, that is weakened or altered. Hence, understanding, that is, simple apprehension, and thinking, that is, the intellectual activity of combining and distinguishing, decay, not through a corruption and suffering in the intellect, but through the corruption of something else within, that is, by something else that is an organ of the intellect becoming corrupted. Understanding itself is incapable of suffering.
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165. Hoc autem dicit Aristoteles non quod sit huius opinionis quod credat intellectum habere determinatum organum corporale, sed, sicut dictum est, ipse hic loquitur supponendo opiniones istorum philosophorum qui, sicut dictum est, erant huius opinionis, scilicet quod omnes operationes animae, etiam ipse intellectus, haberent organa determinata. [Unde dicit secundum hoc] et ideo secundum hoc assignat quare intelligere marcescat, quia huiusmodi operationes quae sunt intelligere, amare et odire, non sunt passiones illius, scilicet animae (supponendo loquitur), sed huiusmodi habentis, scilicet coniuncti seu organi corporalis, organi dico habentis illud, scilicet intelligere, et huiusmodi, secundum quod illud habet. Unde corrupto hoc, scilicet determinato organo huius operationis quae est amare seu intelligere, non rememoratur neque amat, scilicet anima; cuius ratio est quia huiusmodi passiones non erant animae tantum, sed communis, scilicet coniuncti, quod est iam destructum et corruptum. Si ergo omnes huiusmodi motus et operationes debilitantur non propter animam, sed propter debilitatem corporis seu organi, ut dictum est, manifestum est quod non sunt animae tantum, sed coniuncti, et per consequens quod anima non movetur, sed coniunctum, licet ab anima.
165. Now, in saying this, Aristotle is not giving it as his opinion that the intellect has a determinate bodily organ, but (as has been said) he is arguing on the supposition that the views of the philosophers whom he is criticizing are sound; and it was their view, as we have seen, that each of the soul’s activities, and even intellect itself, had its determinate bodily organ. Assuming this, therefore, he gives as the reason for the decay of the understanding that it is one of those activities (like hating and loving) which are not passions of it, that is, of the soul (on their supposition), but of that which has it, that is, of the composite or the bodily organ—precisely, he adds, insofar as this compound has it, that is, understanding, insofar as it has it. Consequently when this, that is, the determinate organ of this activity that is loving or understanding, corrupts, one does not remember or love anymore. The reason is that such passions did not proceed from the soul alone, but from what was common, that is, the composite, which has now been destroyed and corrupted. Clearly, then, if all such movements and activities decay through the body’s or the organ’s decay, not the soul’s (as was said), they do not themselves belong exclusively to the soul but to the composite; and consequently, it is not the soul that is moved, but the composite.
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166. Quia vero Aristoteles locutus est hic de intellectu supponendo opiniones aliorum, sicut iam patet, ne credatur quod ipse opinetur intellectum sic esse ut supposuit, ideo removet hoc dicens quod fortassis intellectus est aliquid divinius et impassibile, id est aliquid altius et aliqua maior operatio ipsius animae quam dicatur hic; dicit autem fortassis, quia nondum hoc determinaverat, sed postea hoc in III ostendit, unde supponendo loquitur.
166. But because Aristotle has spoken here about the intellect while supposing the opinions of others, as is already clear, lest one think that he himself thinks the intellect is in fact as he supposed, he removes this impression by adding, perhaps intellect is something more godlike and unalterable, that is, something higher and a greater activity of the soul itself than any we are considering now. He says, perhaps, because the question has not been determined yet; it will be cleared up in book 3.1 So much to show that he is arguing on a supposition.
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167. Consequenter concludit ex omnibus, dicens quod manifestum est ex his, quae dicta sunt quod non est possibile animam moveri; sed et si non movetur aliquo modo, manifestum est quod non movetur a seipsa huiusmodi motibus, sicut isti ponebant.
167. Finally, he concludes from all this that it is now clear that the soul itself cannot be moved (408b30). And if it cannot be moved in any way at all, then it is evident that it is not self-moving with movements of the kinds here discussed, as such ones had maintained.
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L. 11 (Α.4–5, 408b32–409b18)Soul as a self-moving number
Eorum opiniones variis argumentis reiicit, qui animam definierunt esse numerum seipsum moventem
Soul as a self-moving number
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Multum autem his quae dicta sunt irrationabilius dicere animam esse numerum moventem se ipsum; insunt enim his inpossibilia, prima quidem ex ipso moveri accidentia, propria autem ex eo quod dicunt ipsam esse numerum. Quomodo enim oportet intelligere unitatem motam et a quo et quomodo, inpartibilem et indifferentem existentem? Si namque est motiva et mobilis, differre oportet.
By far the most unreasonable thing said about the soul is that it is a number moving itself. For in this there are several impossibilities. First, what follows upon “being moved,” and then the special difficulties that follow their assertion that it is a number. For how is one to conceive a unit, being indivisible and undifferentiated, as moving? Or by what? Or in what way? For if it is both mobile and mover, there must be some difference within it.
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Amplius autem quoniam dicunt lineam motam planum facere, punctum autem lineam, et unitatum motus lineae erunt; punctum enim unitas est positionem habens, numerus autem animae iam alicubi est et positionem habet.
Further, since they say that a line, being moved, makes a plane, and a point, being moved, a line, the movements of the units will be lines. For a point is a unit having position, whereas the number of a soul must be in some place and have position.
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Amplius autem a numero si auferat aliquis numerum aut unitatem, relinquitur alius numerus. Plantae autem et animalium multa divisa vivunt et videntur eandem habere animam specie.
Further, if one subtracts a number or a unit from some number, another number is left. Plants, however, and many animals, live on after being divided and seem to retain specifically the same soul.
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Videbitur autem utique nihil differre dicere unitates aut corpora parva; et namque ex Democriti sphaeris si fiant puncta, solum autem maneat quantitas, erit aliquid in ipso hoc quidem movens, illud autem quod movetur, sicut in continuo; non enim propter hoc quod est magnitudine differre aut parvitate accidit quod dictum est, sed quia quantum; unde necesse est aliquid esse motivum unitatum. Si autem in animali quod movens anima, et in numero; quare non movens et quod movetur est anima, sed movens solum.
It would seem that there is no difference between saying “units” or “small bodies.” For if the spheres of Democritus were to become points and only quantity remained, there would remain in them a certain mover and something moved, as in continuous things. For the distinction spoken of is not due to largeness or smallness, but to quantity. Hence there must necessarily be something moving the units. But if it is the soul that moves the animal, so also in the case of number; then the soul is not both mover and moved, but only a mover.
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Contingit autem quodam modo hanc unitatem esse. Oportet enim ipsi inesse quandam differentiam ad alias; puncti autem solitarii quae utique differentia erit, nisi positio? Si quidem igitur sunt alterae incorporae unitates et puncta, in eodem erunt unitates. Obtinebit enim locum puncti. Et tamen quid prohibet in eodem esse, si duae sunt, et infinitas? Quorum enim locus indivisibilis est, et ipsa. Si autem in corpore puncta numerus animae, aut si qui eorum quae in corpore punctorum numerus anima, quare non omnia habent animam corpora? Puncta enim in omnibus videntur esse et infinita.
Now, this would somehow have to be a unit. For there must be some difference from the others in it. But how can one isolated point differ from others except by way of position? But, then, if there are many different units and points in a body, the units will be in the same place; for it will occupy the place of a point. Yet if there are two in the same place, what is there to prevent an infinity of them from being together? For that of which the place is indivisible is itself such. But if the points in the body are the number of the soul, or if the number of points in the body is the soul, why are there not souls in all bodies? For in all things there seem to be points, and an infinity of them.
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Amplius autem quomodo possibile est separari puncta et absolui a corporibus, si quidem non dividantur lineae in puncta.
Furthermore, how is it possible for these points to be separated and released from bodies, if lines cannot be divided into points?
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Accidit autem, sicut diximus, sic quidem idem dicere corpus quoddam subtilium partium ipsam ponentibus, sic autem sicut Democritus moveri dicit ab anima, proprium inconveniens. Si quidem enim est anima in omni eo quod sentit corpore, necesse est in eodem duo esse corpora, si corpus aliquod anima; numerum autem dicentibus, in uno puncto puncta multa, aut omne corpus animam habere, nisi quidam numerus differens fiat et alius ab his quae in corpore punctorum. Acciditque animal moveri a numero, sicut et Democritum diximus ipsum movere: quid enim est differre dicere sphaeras parvas aut unitates magnas, aut omnino unitates ferri? Utrobique enim necesse est movere animal in eo quod moventur ipse.
This amounts to saying (as we said before) either, under one aspect, the same as those who posit the soul as a body of very refined elements, or, under another aspect, what Democritus said of the movement of the soul—a thing intrinsically absurd. For if the soul is in every body that senses, there must be two bodies in the same place, if the soul is some sort of body. Moreover, for those who say it is a number, there are many points in one point, or else every body has a soul, unless the soul’s number be other than that of the points in the body. The animal would then come to be moved by a number, precisely as Democritus said. For what difference does it make whether one says small spheres or large units, or, in general, that units are in motion? In any case, the animal necessarily moves when these are moving.
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Complectentibus igitur in unum numerum et motum, haec quidem accidunt et multa alia huiusmodi; non enim solum diffinitionem animae inpossibile est huiusmodi esse, sed et accidens. Manifestum est autem si quis argumentaverit ex ratione hac passiones et opera animae reddere, ut cogitationes, sensus, laetitias, tristitias et quaecumque alia huiusmodi; sicut enim diximus prius, neque divinare facile est ex ipsis.
These and many other consequences, then, result for those who would combine number and movement in a single principle. For it is impossible for such to be not only a definition of the soul but even one of its accidents. But it is clear if one attempts by this procedure to account for the soul’s passions and activities, such as thoughts, sensations, pleasures, pains, and so forth. For, as we said before, based on these things, it is not easy even to hazard a conjecture.
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168. Multum autem his que dicta sunt etc. Postquam philosophus improbavit opinionem illorum qui dixerunt simpliciter animam moveri, hic consequenter arguit opinionem Xenocratis, qui supra motum addidit aliquid aliud, scilicet quod anima esset numerus movens seipsum. Et haec opinio est multum irrationabilior opinionibus aliorum philosophorum quae dictae sunt;
168. By far the most unreasonable thing (408b32). After refuting those who asserted that the soul was a thing that moved simply speaking, the Philosopher now critiques the view of Xenocrates, who said, in addition, that soul was a self-moving number—a far less rational opinion than the other philosophers’ opinions already mentioned.
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nam his qui dicunt animam esse numerum moventem seipsum multa impossibilia insunt, et primo quidem ea quae accidunt ex eo quod est moveri, id est ex motu, quae etiam accidunt omnibus dicentibus animam moveri; accidunt etiam sic dicentibus et inconvenientia propria, ex hoc scilicet quod dicunt animam esse numerum. Et propter hoc philosophus improbat definitionem hanc Xenocratis de anima et non tantum disputans ad nomen, sed ad ipsam intentionem definientis.
For saying the soul is a self-moving number involves many impossibilities. First, of course, there are those arising from being moved,1 that is, due to motion, the things that also result for all who say that the soul moves; and then, in addition, there are the special incongruities that arise for those who say the soul is a number. Therefore, in Xenocrates’s definition of soul, the Philosopher criticizes not merely the terms employed, but also the meaning itself.
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Circa hoc autem duo facit:
This critique has two parts.
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primo ostendit hanc definitionem esse inconvenientem quantum ad ipsam substantiam animae;
First, he shows that the definition does not fit the very substance of the soul;
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secundo vero quantum ad eius accidentia, ibi: complectentibus igitur in unum etc.
second, that it does not fit its accidents, at these and many other consequences (409b11; [177]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
The former part subdivides into two:
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primo enim destruit definitionem praedictam de anima per rationes;
first, reasons for rejecting the said definition;
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secundo vero ostendit quod ad hanc definitionem sequuntur omnia inconvenientia quae sequuntur opiniones aliorum philosophorum, ibi: accidit autem, sicut diximus etc.
and second, reasons for thinking that it involves all the incongruities implicit in the views of the other philosophers, this part beginning at this amounts to saying (409a31; [175]).
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169. Quod autem praedicta definitio sit incongrua, probat sex rationibus, quarum prima talis est. Tu dicis animam esse numerum moventem seipsum; numerus autem constat ex unitatibus; ergo dicis animam unitates; si tu dicis animam esse numerum moventem seipsum, ergo et anima est unitates moventes seipsas; sed omne movens seipsum habet duas partes, ut probatur in VIII Physicorum, quarum una est movens et alia mota; ergo oportebit dicere quod unitas seu punctum dividatur in duas partes, quarum una sit movens et alia mota; hoc autem est impossibile; ergo impossibile est quod anima sit numerus movens seipsum.
169. He shows the unsuitability of the definition by six arguments, the first being as follows. You call the soul a self-moving number, but a number is composed of units; the soul then, in your view, consists of units; if you say the soul is a self-moving number, then the soul is also self-moving units. Now, in any self-moving thing, there are two parts (as is shown in Physics 8): one doing the moving, the other being moved.1 Therefore, you must mean that each unit or point is composed of two parts: one doing the moving, the other being moved. But this is impossible. Therefore, the soul is not a self-moving number.
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Quod autem sit impossibile unitatem habere unam partem moventem et aliam motam, probat, quia nullo modo illud quod est omnino impartibile et indifferens potest intelligi quod moveatur per se, ita quod habeat partem moventem, aliam motam: nam in nullo possunt haec duo, scilicet motiva et mobilis esse nisi differant; cum ergo unitas sit impartibilis et indifferens, non potest huiusmodi partes habere et sic nec moveri. Ergo anima non est numerus movens seipsum.
Moreover, he proves the impossibility of a unit having a moving part and a moved part: for what is wholly indivisible and undifferentiated cannot be thought of as moving by itself in such a way that one part moves it and another is moved. For in nothing can these two, that is, the mobile and mover (408b32) exist without being different from each other. Since, then, a unit is indivisible and undifferentiated, it cannot have such parts or move. Therefore, the soul is not a self-moving number.
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170. Secundam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem quoniam dicunt etc., quae talis est. Tu dicis animam esse numerum, ergo et unitates, ut dictum est; inter unitatem autem et punctum nulla differentia est nisi quod punctus habet positionem: est enim punctum unitas positionem habens. Sed si anima est numerus, oportet quod alicubi sit huiusmodi numerus animae et positionem habens; ergo anima erit unitates positionem habentes. Huiusmodi autem sunt puncta.
170. The second argument, at further, since (409a3), runs thus. You say the soul is a number and, therefore, composed of units, as has been said. Now, the only difference between a unit and a point is that a point has position—for it is a unit that possesses position. But if the soul is a number, this number must exist somewhere and have a position. Therefore, the soul will be the units that have positions. And such things are points.
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Ergo et anima erit puncta. Sed dicunt Platonici quod motus puncti facit lineam, linea autem mota facit superficiem, superficies vero corpus; sed anima est numerus movens seipsum, ergo eodem modo et unitas et per consequens est punctum movens seipsum; punctum autem motum non facit nisi lineam; ergo motus animae non facit nisi lineam et sic anima motu suo non causat vitam, quod falsum est. Non est igitur anima numerus movens seipsum.
So the soul too will be the points. But according to the Platonists, a point in movement makes a line, a line in movement makes a surface, and a surface in movement makes a body. If, then, the soul is a self-moving number, each of its units is self-moving, and each of these is a self-moving point. But such a point can only make a line; therefore, the soul’s motion makes only a line, and so the soul in motion does not cause life—which is false. Therefore, the soul is not a self-moving number.
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171. Tertiam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem a numero etc. Si anima est numerus, ut tu dicis, oportet quod consequatur passiones et naturam numeri; sed constat quod si aliquis auferat a numero unitatem aliquam seu addat, mutat speciem (nam huic numero, scilicet tria, si addas unitatem, mutat speciem: alia enim species est huius numeri quatuor et alia eius quod est tria; si vero ab eodem auferas unitatem, efficitur duo et mutat similiter speciem);
171. The third argument, at further, if (409a7), is the following. If, as you say, the soul is a number, it must have the nature and passions of number. Now, it is evident that whenever a unit is taken from or added to a number, the number changes its species. For if you add 1 to 3, you change the species of the number: for 4 differs in species from 3. Similarly if you take 1 from 3, leaving 2, you change the species.
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constat autem quod animalia sumunt speciem ab anima, cum unumquodque consequatur speciem per formam suam; ergo si anima est numerus, ex subtractione vel additione alicuius ab anima, relinquitur alia anima specie. Sed hoc est falsum: videmus enim in decisionibus plantarum et animalium annulosorum quod divisa seu decisa vivunt et eamdem speciem habent. Non ergo anima est numerus.
Now, it is certain that animals draw their species from their soul, since it is through its own form that each and every thing attains a species. If, then, the soul is a number, any addition to or subtraction from the soul must alter the soul in species. But this is false, for we see that if plants and segmented animals are cut up, the divisions or cuttings go on living and hold on to the same species as before. Therefore, the soul is not a number.
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172. Quartam rationem ponit cum dicit: videbitur autem utique etc., quae talis est. Tu dicis animam esse numerum et, sicut dictum est, sequitur quod anima sit unitates positionem habentes et per consequens quod sit puncta. Secundum hoc autem si recte consideremus, videbitur utique nihil differre dicere quod anima sit corpora parva et indivisibilia, sicut dixit Democritus, aut dicere quod sit unitates positionem habentes: unum enim positionem habens quantitas est et indivisibilis. Ex hoc ergo sic arguo: anima, secundum positionem tuam, est numerus movens seipsum et per consequens unitates et puncta moventia seipsa;
172. The fourth argument, at it would seem that (409a10), is as follows. You say the soul is a number; whence it follows, as we have said, that it is the units having position and, consequently, points. But on this supposition it is obvious that there is no difference between saying, with Democritus, that the soul consists of small indivisible bodies and saying that it is composed of units in position.1 For each unit with position is a quantity and indivisible. From this, then, I argue: the soul, in your view, is a self-moving number and, consequently, consists of units and points moving themselves.
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ponamus autem quod corpora indivisibilia quae posuit Democritus sint puncta, quia non differt, sicut dictum est, et sint quanta, quod necesse est quia proprie non movetur nisi quantum; huiusmodi autem puncta movent se, quia anima est numerus seipsum movens; sed in movente seipso, sicut dictum est, sunt duo; ergo erit in ipso puncto unum quod est movens, aliud quod est motum; nec est curandum utrum sint magna seu parva, dum sit quanta, quia in quolibet continuo movente seipsum hoc accidit, scilicet quod sint duo ibi, unum ut movens, aliud ut motum;
Let us suppose then that the indivisible bodies of Democritus are points (there is no difference, as we have seen) and are quantities (as they must be, since, properly speaking, they are not moved unless they are quantities). Now, these points will move themselves if the soul is a self-moving number. But every self-mover, as has been said, is twofold; hence, there will be in the point itself one thing that is the mover and another that is moved; and this, no matter whether they be large parts or small, provided they have some quantity, for every self-moving continuum contains the two things: a moving one and a moved one.
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et sic necesse est quod sit aliquid motivum unitatum. In animali autem illud quod movet animal est anima; ergo et in numero illud quod movet numerum erit anima; ergo anima non est id quod movetur, sed illud quod movet. Et sic mala est definitio animae quod sit numerus movens seipsum, sed potius quod sit movens numerum motum.
So there must be something moving the units. But in animals, the mover is the soul; therefore, in the case of number, what moves the number would be the soul; whence it follows that the soul is not what is being moved but the mover. And thus, the definition of the soul as a self-moving number is a bad one; it should rather be defined as what moves the moved number.
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173. Quintam rationem ponit cum dicit: contingit autem quodam modo etc., quae talis est. Secundum opinionem Xenocratis contingit hanc, scilicet animam, esse unitatem. Sed ex hoc contingit ipsam esse puncta, quia si anima est unitas, oportet quod differat ab aliis unitatibus, non potest autem differre ab eis nisi per positionem: quae enim differentia est puncti solitarii, id est unitatis, nisi positio? Nulla. Unitas autem positionem habens est punctum. Ergo anima non est unitates, sed puncta. Sed anima est in corpore et quodlibet corpus habet puncta sua per se. Quaero ergo utrum puncta quae sunt anima sint eadem cum punctis corporis aut alia? Si quidem sunt altera, ergo cum in qualibet parte corporis sit anima, in qualibet parte corporis erunt puncta animae et sic erunt duo puncta in eodem loco simul. Et si duo, propter quid non plura aut etiam infinita? Nam illa quorum locus est indivisibilis, et ipsa indivisibilia sunt, unde non indigent ampliori loco. Unde si ponantur duo esse in loco indivisibili, per consequens possunt in eodem loco esse infinita. Si vero dicas quod sunt eadem puncta quae sunt in corpore cum punctis quae sunt anima, sequitur quod, cum omne corpus habeat puncta, quod omne corpus habeat animam; sed hoc est falsum; non ergo anima est numerus.
173. The fifth argument begins at now, this would somehow have to be a unit (409a18). In Xenocrates’s opinion, this, that is, the soul, is a unit. But if so, then it is a point; for the soul must, as a unit, differ from other units,1 and it cannot differ from them except through position. For what is it that differentiates isolated points, that is, units, as here understood, except their position? Nothing. Moreover, only through position are units points. The soul, then, is not units but points. Yet the soul exists in the body, and every body has points throughout itself. I ask, then, are the soul-points identical with the body-points or not? If they are not, then, since the soul is in every part of the body, and in every part of the body there will be the soul’s points, thus there will be two points in the same place at the same time. And if two, why not more than two, ad infinitum? For things whose place is indivisible are themselves indivisible and do not require more space.2 Whence if two can be in an indivisible place, there is no reason why an infinite number should not be there. On the other hand, if the body-points are identical with the soul-points, then every body has a soul, since every body has points. But this is false; therefore the soul is not a self-moving number.
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174. Sextam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem quomodo etc., et sumitur ex praecedenti; quae talis est. Sicut dictum est, sequitur ex positione Xenocratis quod anima sit puncta; sed nos videmus quod puncta non separantur et absolvuntur a corporibus, nam lineae non dividuntur a superficiebus nec puncta a lineis; anima vero separatur et absolvitur a corpore; ergo non est puncta neque numerus. Patet ergo quod definitio Xenocratis de anima est incongrua quantum ad ea quae in definitione ponuntur.
174. The sixth argument, at furthermore, how (409a28), continues the preceding one. As has been said, it follows from Xenocrates’s position that the soul is the points. But we see that points are inseparable and undetachable from bodies, for lines are not separable from surfaces, nor points from lines.1 But the soul is separable and detachable from the body; hence it is not the points or a number. Clearly then, Xenocrates’s definition of the soul is incongruous as regards the things placed in the definition.
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175. Consequenter cum dicit: accidit autem, sicut diximus etc., ostendit definitionem praedictam esse incongruam quantum ad inconvenientia. Nam ex huiusmodi definitione sequuntur omnia inconvenientia quae sequuntur ex opinionibus omnium philosophorum de anima.
175. Then, at this amounts to saying (409a31), he finds this definition incongruous in its consequences. For these consequences involve all the objectionable consequences flowing from the opinions of all who have philosophized about the soul.
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Quidam enim erraverunt circa animam et dixerunt ipsam esse corpus subtilium partium, ex quo sequebatur quod, cum anima sit ubicumque est sensus in corpore et sensus sit ubique per corpus, quod, si anima est corpus, quod duo corpora sint simul; et hoc idem sequetur si anima est puncta, sicut dictum est, scilicet quod duo sint simul et etiam infinita, et hoc si puncta animae sint alia a punctis corporis; sed si non fiat differens numerus punctorum animae, id est si non differant puncta animae a punctis quae sunt corporis, sequitur quod in quolibet corpore sit anima: in quolibet enim corpore est invenire puncta.
For some of these fell into the mistake of saying that the soul was a body made up of extremely fine parts, from which it followed that two bodies would be together in the same place, for the soul is wherever sensation occurs, and this is everywhere in the body.1 And the same would follow, as has been said, if the soul were the points: two points, or even an infinite number of points, would exist together in the same place; this would follow if the soul-points differed from body-points. But if there is not a different number of soul-points, that is, if there is no difference between soul-points and body-points, then every body contains a soul, since it must contain points.
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176. Quidam vero, sicut Democritus, erravit dicens animam moveri et corpus ex motu animae; et cum ipse diceret animam componi ex indivisibilibus sphaeris et ex motu ipsarum moveri corpus, sequebatur quod corpus moveretur ex corporibus indivisibilibus; et hoc idem inconveniens sequitur ex definitione istorum, scilicet animal moveri a numero et per consequens a punctis; et non est differentia dicere sphaeras parvas et unitates magnas aut quascumque unitates moveri. Nam utrobique, id est in sphaericis corporibus et unitatibus, necesse est quod anima moveatur ex eo quod ipsa, scilicet corpora sphaerica et puncta, seu unitates, moventur.
176. Others, like Democritus, erred in saying that the soul itself is moved, and the body is moved because of the soul’s motion.1 And from Democritus’s statement that the soul was made up of indivisible spheres whose movement caused the body to move, it followed that indivisible bodies were the cause of bodily movements. The same incongruity follows from the definition which states that an animal is moved by a number and so by points. It makes no difference whether one says small spheres or large units, for in any case, that is, with spheres or with units, the origin of the soul’s movement is the movement of bodily spheres and points or units.
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177. Consequenter cum dicit: complectentibus igitur etc., ostendit insufficientiam praedictae definitionis ex parte accidentium. Dicit ergo quod quandocumque aliqua definitio sufficienter assignatur, non solum debet ducere in cognitionem substantiae rei definitae, sed etiam accidentium. Sed, si complicemus in unum ista duo quae posita sunt in definitione animae, scilicet numerum et motum, non solum accidunt nobis inconvenientia quae dicta sunt circa substantiam ipsius animae, sed etiam multa alia; quia haec duo non solum est impossibile esse definitionem, id est substantiam, animae, verum etiam est impossibile quod ipsa, scilicet numerus et motus, sint accidentia animae seu ducant in cognitionem accidentium. Non igitur est congrua definitio. Et quod non ducat in cognitionem accidentium animae, manifestum est si quis ex huiusmodi definitione conabitur passiones et opera animae assignare, puta ratiocinationes, delectationes, tristitias et huiusmodi; ex ipsis enim, scilicet ex numero et motu, non solum <non> erit facile devenire in cognitionem accidentium et operationum animae, sed nec divinare poterimus ex eis aliquid de ipsis passionibus et operationibus animae.
177. Next, at these and (409b11), he shows the inadequacy of the above definition with respect to accidents. An adequate definition, he says, must give knowledge not only of the substance of the thing defined, but even of its accidents. But if we combine number and movement in our definition of the soul, we shall find ourselves involved in many other consequences besides those that concern the soul’s very substance. For these two things, number and movement, not only cannot be a definition of the soul, that is, its substance, but it is impossible even that they (that is, number and motion) are accidents of the soul, nor do they lead one to a knowledge of these accidents. Hence the definition itself is unsuitable. And that it does not help us to know the accidents of the soul is manifest if someone were to try, from such a definition, to designate the soul’s passions and activities, such as reasonings, delights, pains, and the like. If we started on these things, namely, number and movement, we should not only find it not easy to reach any knowledge of the soul’s accidents and activities, but we could not even begin to hazard any conjecture about them based on the soul’s passions and activities themselves.
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L. 12 (Α.5, 409b18–411a7)Empedocles’s theory of cognition and why soul is not composed of the elements
Multis rationibus redarguit Empedoclem, qui ex omnibus principiis et elementis animam, ut omnia cognosceret, componi asseruit
Empedocles’s theory of cognition and why soul is not composed of the elements
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Tribus autem modis traditis secundum quos diffiniunt animam, alii quidem maxime motivum enuntiaverunt in movendo se ipsum, alii autem corpus subtilissimum aut incorporalissimum aliorum. Haec autem quas dubitationes et subcontrarietates habent, praeterivimus fere; relinquitur autem considerare quomodo dicitur ex elementis ipsam esse. Dicunt quidem enim quatinus sentiat ea quae sunt et unumquodque cognoscat. Necessarium autem est accidere multa et inpossibilia rationi. Ponunt enim cognoscere simile simili, tanquam ac si animam res ponentes. Non sunt autem haec sola, multa vero et alia, magis autem fortassis infinita numero quae sunt ex his.
There are, then, three ways in which men have defined the soul: some declaring that it is most of all a mover, being self-moving; some, that it is the finest of bodies or the least corporeal of things; however, what contradictions and problems these views entail we have briefly reviewed. So what is left for us to consider is how it is said to be constituted from the elements. For they say this is so because the soul senses things that exist and knows each one. But many impossible consequences follow upon this account. For they suppose that like is known by like, as if asserting that the soul is the realities [it knows]. However, there are not only these latter things, but many others, perhaps an infinite number, that are derived from them.
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Ex quibus quidem igitur est unumquodque horum, cognoscere animam et sentire; sed compositum non cognoscet neque sentiet, ut quid deus aut homo aut caro aut os, similiter autem quodlibet aliud compositorum. Non enim quolibet modo se habentia elementa horum unumquodque, sed ratione quadam et compositione, quemadmodum dicit Empedocles os:
Granted, then, that the soul knows and senses the elements of which each of these is formed, yet it will not know or sense composites, such as what a god is, or a man or flesh, or bone, or anything else compounded. For each of these things is not the elements interrelated in just any way at all, but rather by some ratio or composition, as Empedocles said of bone:
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Terra autem bene apta in bene amplis receptaculis, duas ex octo partibus sortita est fluide clari<tatis>, quatuor autem vulcani; ossa autem alba facta sunt.
The earth all gracious in its ample caverns / took two parts out of eight of luminous water, / but four from the god of fire, and then / bone was made white.
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Nihil igitur profectus est elementa in anima esse, nisi et rationes inerunt et compositio: cognoscet enim unumquodque simile, os autem aut hominem nihil, nisi et haec inerunt. Hoc autem quod inpossibile sit, nihil oportet dicere: quis enim dubitabit si inerit in anima lapis aut homo? Similiter autem et bonum et non bonum; eodem modo et de aliis.
So it is no use supposing elements to be in the soul unless there are also in it ratios and a composition. Let each know its like, but it will not know bone or man unless these be in it. It is hardly necessary to say, however, that this is impossible; who would ever think of inquiring whether there is a stone or a man in the soul? Likewise, with the good and the not-good, and similarly with other things.
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Amplius autem cum multipliciter dicatur id quod est (significat enim aliud quidem hoc aliquid, aliud autem quantitatem aut qualitatem aut et quoddam aliud divisorum predicamentorum), utrum ex omnibus erit anima aut non? Sed non videntur communia omnium esse elementa.
Further, “that which is” can be predicated in several ways: in one way, it signifies a this-something; in another, quantity; in another, quality; and in any other way according to the categories that have been distinguished. Will the soul be made up of all these or not? But it does not seem that there are elements common to all these.
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Si igitur quaecumque substantiarum sunt ex his solum, quomodo igitur cognoscet et aliorum unumquodque? Aut dicent uniuscuiusque generis esse elementa et principia propria, ex quibus animam constare: erit ergo qualitas et quantitas et substantia; sed inpossibile est ex quantitatis elementis substantiam esse et non quantitatem. Dicentibus itaque ex omnibus, haec et huiusmodi altera accidunt.
If, then, it is from those of the substances only, how will it also know anything of the others? Or is one to say that there are elements and principles proper to each genus, and the soul is composed of these? Then there will be quality and quantity and substance in the soul. But it is impossible that substance and not quantity be derived from the elements of quantity. For those who hold that the soul is composed of all things, these and other such difficulties arise.
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Inconveniens autem et dicere quidem inpassibile esse simile a simili, sentire autem simile simile et cognoscere simile simili. Sentire autem pati aliquid et facere et moveri ponunt, similiter autem et cognoscere et intelligere.
It is incongruous to say that a thing cannot be acted on by its like, and yet that sensation and knowledge are “of like by like.” For they posit sensation as a sort of being acted upon and being moved, and knowing and understanding likewise.
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Multas autem dubitationes et difficultates habente ipso dicere, sicut Empedocles, quod corporeis elementis singula cognoscuntur et ad simile testatur quod nunc dictum est. Quaecumque enim insunt in animalium corporibus simpliciter terre, ut ossa, nerui, pili, nihil sentire videntur; quare neque similia, et tamen conveniret.
What has now been said witnesses to the many doubts and difficulties to be faced by one who, with Empedocles, says that each thing is known through its corporeal elements and their relation to its likeness. For whatever things in the bodies of animals are simply earthy (like bones, sinews, hair) seem to sense nothing, not even their likenesses, and yet they ought to, on this hypothesis.
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Amplius autem unumquodque principiorum ignorantia plus quam intelligentia existet: cognoscet quidem enim unum quodlibet, multa autem ignorabit, omnia enim alia.
Again, each one of the principles will have more ignorance than understanding. For each will know a single principle and be ignorant of many others, indeed of all others.
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Accidet autem et Empedocli insipientissimum esse deum: solus enim elementorum unum non cognoscet, discordiam; mortalia autem omnia, ex omnibus enim unumquodque est.
Further, for Empedocles, the God must be the most ignorant of all things, for he alone will not know one of the elements, namely strife; but mortals will know all things, for every individual is composed of all.
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Omnino autem propter quam causam non omnia habent animam quae sunt, quoniam omne aut elementum aut ex elemento aut uno aut pluribus aut omnibus? Necesse enim est unum aliquod cognoscere aut quaedam aut omnia.
In general, then, why is it that not everything that exists has a soul? For all things are either elements or are made of an element, or of several, or of all. For they ought accordingly to know one, or several, or all.
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Dubitabit autem utique aliquis et quid est unum faciens ipsa; materiae enim comparantur elementa, maxime autem proprium est illud continens, quodcumque est;
Moreover, one might also wonder what makes them one thing. For the elements are comparable to matter, and each thing is most properly what holds it together.
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anima autem aliquid melius esse et antiquius, impossibile est; impossibilius autem adhuc intellectu, rationabilissimum enim esse hunc nobilissimum et dominum secundum naturam, elementa autem dicunt esse prima entium.
But it is impossible that there be anything better and more primordial than the soul; moreover, it is still more impossible that it be better than the intellect. For that this is the noblest thing and the ruler according to its nature is most reasonable, whereas these men say that the elements are the first of beings.
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Omnes autem et qui, ex eo quod cognoscit et sentit anima quae sunt, ex elementis dicunt ipsam, et qui maxime motivum, non de omni dicunt anima. Neque enim sensitiva omnia motiva: videntur enim esse quaedam animalium manentia secundum locum, et tamen videtur hoc solo motuum movere anima animal.
However, not one of those who maintain that the soul is constituted from the elements because it senses and knows things that exist, and that it is most capable of moving, speaks about every kind of soul. For not all sensitive things move, for certain animals are observed to remain in one place, although it would seem that the soul moves the animal with this one motion only.
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Similiter autem et quicumque intellectivum et sensitivum ex elementis faciunt. Videntur enim plantae vivere non participantes loci mutatione neque sensu, et animalium multa intelligentiam non habere. Si autem aliquis et haec segregaverit posuerit quae intellectum partem aliquam animae, similiter autem et sensitivum, neque utique sic dicet de omni anima neque de tota neque de una. Hoc autem sustinuit et quae est in Orpheicis vocatis carminibus ratio. Dicit enim animam ex toto ingredi respirantium quae fertur a ventis; non possibile itaque plantis hoc accidere neque animalium quibusdam, si quidem non omnia respirant; hoc autem latuit sic opinantes.
Likewise with those who would make of elements the sensitive and intellectual powers. For plants seem to live, but do not participate in local motion or sensation, and many animals do not possess intelligence. But even setting this fact to one side and admitting that intellect is a part of the soul, and the sensitive power likewise, they would not be speaking of every soul, nor of the whole of any soul, nor of any one single soul. The same objection tells against a notion expressed in the Orphic hymns, where it is said, the soul enters from the universe, breathed in by the winds. This cannot occur in the case of plants and certain animals, if not all of them in fact breathe—a fact overlooked by those who put forward this view.
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Si vero ex elementis animam facere oportet, nihil oportet ex omnibus; sufficiens est enim altera pars contrarietatis se ipsam diiudicare et oppositam. Recto enim et ipsum et obliqum cognoscimus; iudex enim utrorumque canon est [recto], obliquum autem neque sui ipsius neque recti.
But if one must constitute the soul from the elements, there is no need to use them all; for one member of the pair of contraries is sufficient for making a judgment about itself and its opposite. For by the straight we know both it itself and the curved; for the judge of each is the rule for the straight, whereas the curved is that of neither its own self nor of the straight.
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178. Tribus autem modis etc. Philosophus ostendit supra quomodo antiqui naturales in cognitionem animae devenerunt per tria, scilicet per motum et per cognitionem et per esse incorporalissimum, et disputavit contra illos qui venerunt in cognitionem animae per motum et contra illos qui dixerunt animam esse quid incorporalissimum et maxime simplex; hic consequenter disputat contra illos qui dicebant animam omnia cognoscere quia composita erat ex omnibus,
178. There are, then, three ways (409b18). Having in the preceding sections1 explained that the early philosophers pursued their inquiry into the soul by three ways, that of movement, of knowledge, and of the most incorporeal being, and having pressed certain objections against those who took the way of movement, and against those who said the soul was most incorporeal and most simple, the Philosopher now turns to criticize those who said the soul knows everything because it is composed of everything.
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179. quorum positio fuit quod anima cognosceret res omnes et, quia cognitio fit per assimilationem, quasi hoc divinantes dicebant animam ad hoc quod omnia cognosceret esse compositam ex omnibus et quod similitudo omnium rerum esset in anima secundum proprium modum essendi. Unde, cum res constent ex elementis, dicebant quod anima erat composita ex omnibus elementis ut sentiat et cognoscat omnia quae sunt. Et quia principalis in hac positione fuit Empedocles, cum poneret animam compositam ex pluribus elementis quam aliquis aliorum, ideo philosophus principaliter hic reprobat opinionem suam et disputat contra eam. Et circa hoc duo facit: primo enim improbat opinionem Empedoclis; secundo vero quamdam aliam, ibi: <et> in toto autem quidem ipsam etc.
179. Their position was that the soul knows all things and, because knowledge occurs through assimilation, as though divining this, they said that the soul knows all things because it is composed from all things, and that a likeness of all realities is in the soul according to its own proper mode of existence. Hence, since the realities consist of elements, they said that the same is true of the soul, so that it might sense and know all things that exist. The chief upholder of this view was Empedocles, who posited more elements in the soul than anyone else; and therefore the Philosopher is more concerned here to refute and dispute against him than anyone else. He does two things in this regard: first, he attacks the opinion of Empedocles, and then, at and some say (411a7; [192]), that of certain others.
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180. Improbat autem opinionem Empedoclis decem rationibus, quarum prima talis est. Empedocles dicit quod, quia cognitio fit per similitudinem, cum anima cognoscat omnia, oportet animam esse compositam ex omnibus; sed patet quod huic rationi est necessarium accidere multa inconvenientia et impossibilia. Constat enim quod in qualibet re non sunt haec sola, scilicet elementa, sed multa et alia ab elementis, sicut est proportio commixtionis et ratio uniuscuiusque, et forte sunt infinita numero quae accidunt rebus compositis ex his, scilicet elementis, sicut patet in osse. Nam non solum oportet cognoscere illa ex quibus componitur os, sed etiam proportionem quae est inter ipsa ex quibus componitur, et rationem ossis; quia omnia quae sunt composita non consistunt quocumque modo se habeant elementa, sed quadam ratione et compositione, ut scilicet sint proportionata ad invicem.
180. Against Empedocles he brings ten arguments. The first is as follows. Empedocles argues that, since it knows all things, the soul must be composed of all things, because knowledge takes place by means of likeness. But it is clear that many incongruous and impossible consequences follow upon this account (409b18). For clearly the elements are not only these latter things, that is, the elements, that any given reality contains; it includes many others that come from the elements, such as the proportion of the mixture and the ratio of each thing; and there may even be an infinite number of accidents belonging to realities composed from them, that is, from the elements. Take, for example, bones. To understand bones, we need to know not only the elements from which they are composed, but also the proportion between the things from which they are composed, and the ratio for bones; for things that are composite consist not of the elements in just any sort of relation to each other, but with a certain ratio and composition, such that they be proportioned to each other.
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Nam os cum habeat octo partes (secundum quod dicit Empedocles unumquodque compositum habere), octo partes non aequaliter attribuuntur omnibus elementis, sed terra habet ibi duas partes, aer habet ibi unam, aqua similiter unam, sed ignis quatuor; et ideo ex maiori participatione ignis dicit ossa esse facta alba et ex terra sicca. Sic ergo in rebus compositis non solum sunt ipsa elementa, sed proportio et ratio uniuscuiusque. Inde sic: aut ergo istae proportiones sunt in anima cum elementis, aut non; si sunt in anima, ergo in anima sunt ossa et carnes et huiusmodi et per consequens homo et lapis et cetera, et nullus dubitat quod haec non sunt in anima; si vero dicas quod non sunt ibi huiusmodi proportiones et rationes, sed solum elementa, tunc anima non cognoscet proportiones rerum nec ipsa composita: quomodo enim poterit cognoscere Deum, scilicet totum caelum, aut hominem aut lapidem seu os? Nullo modo, sed elementa tantum.
For if bone, as Empedocles (who says everything is composite) says, is composed of eight parts, the eight parts are not equally attributed to all the elements; rather, earth contributes two parts, air has one part, water one, but fire four—and because of the predominance of fire bone was made white and it was made dry by earth (410a4). Thus, in compound realities there are not only the elements themselves, but also a certain proportion and account. Well then, either these proportions are in the soul together with the elements, or not. If they are in the soul, then bones and flesh and so forth, and therefore men and stones and bodies and the rest, are all in the soul; and this nobody dreams of conceding. But if these proportions and accounts are not in there, but only the elements are, then the soul would not know the proportions of things nor the compounds themselves; for how can it know God (that is, the heavens as a whole) or man or stone or bone? In no way, but only the elements.
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181. Secundam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem <cum> multipliciter dicatur etc., quae talis est. Tu dicis quod anima est composita ex principiis; sed diversorum generum diversa sunt principia; cum ergo id quod <est> dicatur multipliciter, id est <cum> sint diversa genera sicut substantiae, qualitatis, quantitatis et aliorum praedicamentorum, ergo erunt diversa principia; quaero ergo utrum anima sit composita tantum ex principiis substantiae aut ex principiis omnium generum? Si tantum ex principiis substantiae, tunc anima non cognoscet nisi substantias, et ipsi ponunt eam cognoscere omnia. Si vero componitur ex principiis omnium, tunc, cum quicquid sit ex principiis substantiae sit substantia et ex principiis quantitatis sit quantitas et sic de singulis, anima erit substantia, quantitas, qualitas, relatio et huiusmodi.
181. The second argument, starting at further, “that which is” (410a13), runs thus. You say the soul is made up of the principles. But of diverse kinds of things there are diverse principles; therefore, since that which exists is spoken of in many ways—that is, since there are diverse genera, such as substance, quality, quantity, and the remaining categories, there will be diverse principles. Is, then, the soul made up of the principles of substance alone, or does it include those of all genera? If the first alternative is right, then the soul knows only substances, yet they assert it knows everything. But if it is composed of the principles of all things, then, since whatever is composed of the principles of substance is a substance, and whatever is composed of the principles of quantity is a quantity, and so on likewise with the rest, it follows that the soul is a substance, a quality, a quality, a relation, and so forth.
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182. Posset autem responderi contra hanc rationem Aristotelis quod principia substantiae sunt etiam quantitatis et qualitatis et aliorum, cum omnia fundentur supra substantiam; et ideo non oportet quod sint in anima aliud quam substantia et nihilominus cognoscet omnia. Ad hoc dicendum quod quaelibet res habet principia proxima et remota et cognitio oportet quod sit per principia proxima; principia autem substantiae, licet sint principia aliorum, sunt tamen remota et non proxima et ideo per ea non potest haberi cognitio nisi de substantia.
182. It might be answered against Aristotle’s argument that the principles of substance are also those of quantity, quality, etc., since everything is founded upon substance; hence, the soul need only possess the principles of substance to know everything. But to this it must be said that every reality has both remote and proximate principles and knowledge must occur by means of the proximate principles. Now, although the principles of substance are the principles of the others, they are nonetheless the remote principles, not the proximate ones; hence they cannot give knowledge of anything except substance.
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183. Tertiam rationem ponit cum dicit: inconveniens autem dicere etc., quae talis est et ducens ad inconveniens; quae talis est. Ratio quare anima sit composita ex omnibus elementis est quia anima cognoscit omnia et cognitio est per similitudinem. Contra. Constat autem quod sentire et cognoscere est pati aliquid; sed inconveniens est dicere quod simile patiatur a simili, sed a contrario; ergo et inconveniens est dicere quod sentire seu cognoscere sit simile simili.
183. The third argument, starting at it is incongruous (410a23), is the sort that reduces to incongruity. It is as follows. The reason why the soul is said to be composed of all the elements is that it knows all things and knowledge is by likeness. Against this is the admitted fact that sensation and knowledge are a sort of being acted upon; and it seems incongruous to say that like is acted upon by like and not rather by its contrary; and consequently, it is incongruous to say that sensation or knowledge are of like by like.
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184. Quartam rationem ponit cum dicit: multas autem dubitationes etc., quae talis est. Ex hoc quod dictum est superius, testatur quod dictum Empedoclis, scilicet quod simile simili cognoscatur, habet multas dubitationes et difficultates,
184. The fourth argument, at what has now (410a27), is this. What has been said already is enough to show that Empedocles’s statement (that is, that like is known by like) raises many doubts and difficulties.
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sed adhuc magis apparet difficile et improprie dictum. Nam si anima cognosceret simile simili, sicut Empedocles dicit, tunc sequitur quod per elementa aeris cognoscat aera et sic de aliis; sed nos videmus quod multae partes terrae sunt in animali quae nihil sentiunt, sicut pili et ossa et nervi, et tamen conveniret quod sentirent secundum positionem eorum; ergo non cognoscitur simile simili, vel etiam non est composita ex omnibus elementis.
But there is a yet stronger sign that it is said improperly. For if the soul, as Empedocles says, knows like by like, then the element air will know air, and so on for the other elements. But we see that animals’ bodies have many earthy parts that lack sensation, such as hair, bones, and nerves; yet they ought to have sensation, according to their position. Therefore, like is not known by like, or it is not also composed of all the elements.
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185. Quintam rationem ponit cum dicit: amplius autem unumquodque principiorum etc., quae talis est. Adhuc ex positione Empedoclis quod simile cognoscatur simili, sequitur aliud inconveniens, scilicet quod principium habet plus de ignorantia quam de intelligentia. Si enim cognitio est per simile tantum et principium quodlibet sit simplex et non habet alicuius similitudinem in se nisi suam, non cognosceret nisi se ipsum et ignorabit multa, omnia scilicet quae sunt alia ab eo.
185. The fifth argument, at again (410b2), runs thus. Another objection to this view of Empedocles that like is known by like is that another incongruity follows, namely that the principle has more ignorance than understanding. For if knowledge is only by likeness, and if every principle is simple and has no likeness to anything but itself, it follows that each principle only knows itself and is ignorant of many things, that is, of all things other than itself.
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186. Sextam rationem ponit cum dicit: accidet autem Empedocli etc., quae talis est. Adhuc etiam ex dicta positione, scilicet quod simile cognoscatur simili, accidet aliud inconveniens Empedocli, hoc videlicet quod deus sit insipientissimus omnium animalium. Quod ex hoc sequitur. Sciendum enim quod, sicut dictum est, Empedocles posuit omnia ista inferiora esse composita ex quatuor elementis et ex lite et amicitia; et generatio et corruptio in rebus provenit ex istis duobus, scilicet lite et amicitia; caelum vero dixit esse Deum, et dixit quod erat compositus ex quatuor elementis et amicitia, sed non ex lite, et ideo est incorruptibilis. Si ergo simile cognoscitur simili, cum Deus non sit compositus ex lite, non cognoscet litem et sic erit simplicior ceteris animalibus, quae cognoscunt litem, cum sint composita ex ea.
186. The sixth argument comes at further, for Empedocles (410b4). This position, that like is known by like, also implies another incongruity for Empedocles, that the God is the most ignorant of all animals. For, as we have seen, Empedocles thought that all lower things are composed of the four elements together with strife and friendship, these last being the causes of the coming-to-be and passing-away in things.1 But he called the sky, “God,” and he said it was composed of the four elements and friendship, but not strife, and it was therefore incorruptible. If, then, like is known by like, the God cannot know strife, since it is not composed of strife, and the God is more of a simpleton than other animals, which do know strife because they are composed of it.
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187. Septimam rationem ponit cum dicit: omnino autem propter quam causam etc., quae talis est. Si anima est composita ex omnibus elementis, sequitur quod omnia quae sunt habent animam: omne enim quod est aut est ex omnibus elementis aut ex aliquibus; sed omne quod est compositum ex elementis est corpus; ergo omnia corpora habent animam et omnia quae sunt, quod falsum est.
187. The seventh argument comes at in general, then, why (410b7). It is as follows. If the soul is made of all the elements, then it follows that all things that exist have souls. For all things that exist are made of either all or some elements. Now, whatever is made up of elements of elements is a body. Hence, all bodies and, indeed, all things that exist, have souls, which is false.
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188. Octavam rationem ponit [ibi] cum dicit: dubitabit autem utique etc., quae talis est. Elementa sunt plura et contraria; ubicumque autem aliqua contraria conveniunt et componuntur, oportet quod sit aliquid aliud quod contineat et faciat ipsa unum; si ergo anima est composita ex omnibus elementis, oportet quod sit aliquid aliud continens illa; sed hoc est valde dubium quid sit, quia sic esset nobilius et prius anima, quod est impossibile, et ad minus de intellectu, quia valde rationale est quod intellectus sit nobilissimus omnium et dominus secundum naturam; item sequeretur quod illud esset prius quam elementa, quod est falsum, quia Empedocles et alii dicunt elementa esse prima inter omnia entia. Non est ergo anima composita ex elementis.
188. The eighth argument begins at one might wonder (410b10). It is as follows. The elements are many and contrary; but whenever contrary things come together in a composition, there must be some other thing that holds them together and makes them one thing. Hence, if the soul is made up of the elements, there must be something else holding them together. But it is extremely doubtful what this can be, for it would be nobler and prior to the soul, which is an impossibility, at least as regards the intellect, since it is quite reasonable to consider the intellect to be the noblest of all things and what rules according to its nature. Besides, this other thing would have to be prior to the elements, which is not true, for Empedocles and the rest assert that the elements were the first of all beings. Therefore, the soul is not made up of elements.
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189. Nonam rationem ponit cum dicit: omnes autem et qui, ex eo quod cognoscit etc., ubi ostendit defectum et insufficientiam positionis Empedoclis et aliorum omnium qui consideraverunt animam ex motu seu sensu; quae talis est. Apparet etiam quod omnes et quicumque dixerunt animam esse aliquid motivum secundum locum, insufficienter dixerint. Nam multa animata sunt quae non moventur secundum locum, sed manent, sicut plantae et alia huiusmodi. Similiter autem et illi qui dixerunt animam esse quid intellectivum et sensitivum, dixerunt insufficienter. Nam multa sunt animata quae neque sentiunt neque intelligunt. Si vero aliquis hoc segregaverit, scilicet intellectivum, sensitivum, et motivum, et dicat intellectivum unam partem animae et similiter sensitivum, non tamen propter hoc dicet de omni, cum non omnes animae sint intellectivae, neque de tota, cum intellectivum et sensitivum sunt partes animae, neque de una, quia sic non diceret omnes proprietates animae cuiuscumque, cum in anima sint aliae proprietates quam sint intelligere et sentire.
189. He begins the ninth argument at not one of those (410b16), showing the weakness and inadequacy of Empedocles’s view and that of all the others who have inquired about the soul by way of movement or sense-perception. For it is apparent that those who said the soul is something that moves relative to place spoke in an inadequate way; for many ensouled beings, such as plants and things resembling plants, do not move locally at all but are fixed in one place. And there is a like inadequacy with those who said the soul is something intellectual or sensitive; for many ensouled things neither sense nor think. And even if local motion, intellect, and sensation are set to one side and regarded as distinct parts of the one soul, this will not apply to every soul, since not all souls are intellectual, nor to the whole of any one soul, since only parts of it will be intellectual and sensitive, nor to any one single soul, since this description does not enumerate all the properties of each soul; for in any soul there are other properties besides understanding and sensation.
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190. Et quia quidam philosophus qui vocatur Orpheus defective etiam de anima locutus est et quasi in similem defectum incidit, ideo hic adiungit eius defectum.
190. And a certain philosopher named Orpheus, having fallen into a rather similar error in what he said about the soul, is mentioned here too.
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Sciendum est quod Orpheus iste fuit unus de primis philosophis qui erant quasi poetae theologi, loquentes metrice de philosophia et de Deo, et fuerunt tres tantum, scilicet Museus, Orpheus et quidam Linus. Et iste Orpheus primo induxit homines ad habitandum simul et fuit pulcherrimus concionator, ita quod homines bestiales et solitarios reduceret ad civilitatem; et propter hoc dicitur de eo quod fuit optimus cytharaedus in tantum quod faceret lapides saltare, id est ita fuit pulchre concionator quod homines lapideos emolliret. Post hos vero tres, fuerunt septem sapientes, quorum unus fuit Thales.
Note that Orpheus was one of those first philosophers who were, so to say, poet-theologians; for they wrote in verse on philosophy and about God; and there were only three of them, that is, Museus, Orpheus, and a certain Linus. This Orpheus, a wonderful orator whose words had power to civilize wild and brutish folk, was the first to induce his fellows to live together in society. For this reason it is said of him that he was the greatest cithara player, to the point that he could make rocks dance—that is, his eloquence could soften the hardest of men. And after these three came the seven sages, of whom Thales was one.
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Hic ergo Orpheus volebat quod totus aer esset animatus et anima quaedam et quod anima corporum viventium nihil aliud esset nisi illud quod animal attrahit de aere animato per respirationem; et hoc dicebat metrice. Et ideo dicit philosophus quod ratio Orphei quae est in metricis carminibus de anima sustinuit eumdem defectum quem sustinuerunt rationes praecedentium quia, sicut dictum est, ipse voluit quod illud esset anima quod attrahitur per respirationem animalium; sed hoc insufficienter dictum est, quia multa animalium sunt quae non respirant; hoc autem, scilicet quod aliqua animalia non respirant, latuit illos qui fuerunt praedictae opinionis. Et sic patet quod isti reprehenduntur de insufficientia.
Now, this Orpheus thought that the whole air was ensouled, and was indeed a sort of soul, and that the soul of living bodies was nothing but the ensouled air drawn into them in breathing; and this idea he expressed in verse. But the Philosopher objects to the Orphic account expressed in metered songs, saying that it is just as inadequate as the others he has criticized; for, as was said, he wanted the soul to be what is drawn in through the breathing of animals. But this opinion is inadequate, for there are many animals that do not breathe at all, a fact (410b27), he says, which was overlooked by those who held this opinion. And thus it is clear that such touches the inadequacy of the theory.
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191. Decimam rationem ponit cum dicit: si vero ex elementis animam facere etc., et arguit eos de superfluitate; quae talis est. Dicunt enim isti quod ad hoc quod anima cognoscat oportet quod sit composita ex elementis; sed, cum nos videamus quod cognitio omnis rei possit haberi per pauciora, ergo, etsi concedatur animam componi ex elementis, non debuit poni animam componi ex omnibus elementis, sed ad plus ex duobus;
191. At but if one (411a2) comes the tenth argument, which convicts the Empedoclean position of unnecessary complication. It is as follows. The soul’s capacity for knowledge is explained by its composition from elements. Now, since we see that knowledge of every reality can be possessed through fewer things, therefore, even if one grants that the soul is composed of the elements, we ought not to suppose that the soul is composed of all the elements, but at the most two.
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et quod cognitio habeatur per pauciora, patet quia, cum compositum constet ex aliquo perfecto et imperfecto, ratio cognoscendi imperfectum est perfectum; et cum contraria reducantur in privationem et habitum, sufficiens est altera pars, scilicet illa quae se habet per modum habitus et perfecti, ad cognoscendum se ipsam et alteram partem quae est per modum privationis et imperfecti. Nam per rectum diiudicamus et cognoscimus ipsum rectum et etiam obliquum (canon enim, id est regula, est illud per quod habetur iudicium de utroque), per obliquum vero nec ipsum cognoscimus neque rectum.
And that knowledge rests on few things is clear if we consider that, since a composite is put together from something perfect and something imperfect, the perfect one is the reason we know the imperfect; and since in contraries, which can be reduced to possession and privation,1 one member of the pair of contraries is sufficient, that is, the one that stands in the mode of possession and the perfect in order to understand both itself and the other term that stands in the mode of privation and the imperfect. Thus, by the straight we know and form judgments about both the straight and the curved; for the rule, that is, the measure, is the means of knowing both;2 but the curved line is the means of knowing neither itself nor the straight.
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Non ergo fuit necesse animam facere, id est eam componere, ex omnibus elementis, sed ex duobus tantum, scilicet ex igne et terra, et per haec cognosceret et ipsa et contraria, sicut per ignem cognosceret calida et frigida, et per terram sicca et humida.
Hence there was no need to constitute the soul as made up of all the elements, but it was enough to adduce two only, fire and earth, as its means of knowing both itself and contrary things. Through fire it could know both cold and hot objects, and through earth, it could know both the dry and the moist.
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L. 13 (Α.5, 411a7–411a25)The elements have no soul
Eorum sententiam exponit ac reprobat qui animam ipsis elementis attribuere ausi sunt
The elements have no soul
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Et in toto autem quidam ipsam misceri dicunt. Unde fortassis et Thales opinatus est omnia esse plena diis.
And some say that a soul is intermingled with everything in the universe. That is perhaps why Thales thought that everything was full of gods.
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Hoc autem habet quasdam dubitationes. Propter quam enim causam in aere aut in igne anima cum sit non facit animal, in mixtis autem, et haec in his melior esse putata? Quaeret enim utique aliquis quam ob causam quae in aere anima ea quae in animalibus melior et immortalior. Accidit autem utrobique inconveniens et irrationabile; et namque dicere animal ignem aut aerem magis irrationabilium est, et non dicere animalia cum anima insit, inconveniens est.
This, however, presents certain difficulties. For why does the soul in air and fire not make ensouled beings of them, whereas it does so in composite beings—and that, even though it is thought to be more excellent in the former? (And one might well ask why the soul in the air should be higher and more immortal than that in animals.) On either count, the theory is incongruous and unreasonable. To say that air or fire is an animal is among the greatest absurdities; and if there is a soul in them, it is incongruous not to call them animals.
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Opinari autem videntur animam esse hic, quoniam totum partibus similis speciei; quare necessarium ipsis dicere et animam similis speciei partibus esse, si in intercipi aliquid continentis in animalibus animata animalia fiunt.
They seem to have held that a soul existed in these on the ground that the universe is made up of parts of a like species; so that if animals become animate by partaking of the containing element, they must say that the soul is of a like species with its parts.
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Si autem aer quidem discretus similis speciei, anima autem dissimilis partis, hoc quidem aliquid ipsius existet videlicet, aliud autem non existet. Necesse est igitur ipsam similis partis esse, aut non esse in qualibet parte omnis.
However, if the air, removed thus, is of a like species, but the soul is composed of heterogeneous parts, something of the soul will exist and something not. It is necessary, then, either that it be of homogeneous parts, or that it be not in any and every part of the whole.
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Manifestum igitur ex dictis est quod neque cognoscere inest animae propter id quod est ex elementis, neque moveri ipsam bene neque vere dicitur.
It is evident, then, from what has been said, that the cause of knowledge being in the soul is not that soul is made up of the elements, and that it is neither true nor well said to say that it is in motion.
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192. Et in toto autem quidam ipsam misceri etc. Postquam philosophus posuit opinionem ponentium animam esse ex elementis, et rationes ipsorum et improbavit eas, hic ex incidenti ponit opinionem quorumdam dicentium animam esse in elementis. Et circa hoc duo facit:
192. And some say that the soul (411a7). Having stated and rejected the opinion and arguments of those who maintained that the soul was composed of elements, the Philosopher is now led, by the same train of thought, to discuss the notion, upheld by some, according to which a soul is within the elements.
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primo enim ponit opinionem;
First, then, he states this opinion;
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secundo vero rationem opinionis, ibi: opinari autem etc.
and second, at they seem to have held (411a16; [196]), the argument used to support it.
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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primo ponit opinionem;
First, he states the opinion;
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secundo improbat eam, ibi: hoc autem habet etc.
second, at this, however (411a9; [193]), he disproves it.
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Dicit ergo quod sunt quidam qui dicunt animam misceri in toto universo, ponentes eam tam in elementis quam in elementatis. Unde quidam philosophus nomine Thales, fortassis motus ab hac opinione, opinatus est omnia esse plena diis; volebat enim quod totum universum esset animatum et eius anima esset Deus, unde, sicut anima est in qualibet parte animalis et tota, ita volebat quod in qualibet parte universi esset Deus et sic omnia essent plena diis. Et forte ex hoc provenit idolatria.
There are, he says, some who say that a soul is intermingled with everything, whether simple elements or things composed of these. This perhaps is why Thales thought that everything was full of gods; perhaps he thought that the entire universe was ensouled and its soul was divine, that just as soul exists in every part of animal and in the whole, so a god was in every part of the universe and everything therefore was full of divinities. And perhaps idolatry arose from this.
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193. Consequenter cum dicit: hoc autem habet etc., improbat hanc opinionem dicens quod hoc, scilicet quod anima sit in elementis et in elementatis, habet quasdam dubitationes et oppositiones. Quarum una est quia, si anima est in aere et in igne (in istis enim duobus dicebant maxime eam esse), difficile erit dicere propter quam causam anima in eis non facit animal, id est ista non sint animalia, cum in mixtis anima faciat animal, id est mixta animata sint animalia, praecipue cum putandum sit quod haec, scilicet anima, sit melior in elementis simplicibus quam in elementatis.
193. At this, however (411a9), he points out, against this opinion, that it—that is, that the soul is in the elements and things made from the elements—presents certain difficulties. For instance, if a soul exists in air and in fire (and of these two especially this was asserted), it is hard to see why it does not make ensouled beings of them, that is, why the soul in them does not constitute an animal. For the soul in composed things does make an animal (that is, the composite ensouled things are animals); especially since one would think that it, that is, the soul, would be all the more excellent in the simple elements than in the things composed of elements.
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194. Alia dubitatio est quia quaeret aliquis ex his utique motus quare anima quae secundum ipsos est in elementis, est melior et immortalior quam anima quae est in elementatis, cum haec quae est in elementatis constituat animal et cognoscens et sentiens, illa vero quae est in elementis non constituat.
194. Again, one might well ask, moved by these things, he says, why the soul which they place in the elements is higher and more immortal than the soul that is in things composed of elements. For the latter constitute knowing, sentient animals,1 but that which is in the elements does not do this.
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195. Ex his autem duabus dubitationibus quaecumque ponatur, accidit inconveniens et irrationabile, quia dicere quod ignis sive aer sit animal, ut primo dubitatur, est maxime inconveniens et ad sensum apparet falsum et est dictum non habentium rationem, et non dicere ea in quibus est anima [non] esse animalia, est valde inconveniens: nam secundum hoc in nullo differt, inter esse animam in aliquo corpore et non esse.
195. But however the objections are put, the result is that the theory is incongruous and unreasonable. For to say that fire or air is an animal is most incongruous, and it is contradicted by experience and is unsupported by any good reason. And not to call animals those things that have souls is extremely incongruous; for it would follow that there was no difference between souls that exist in bodies and those that do not.1
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196. Consequenter cum dicit: opinari autem etc., ponit rationem praemissae opinionis. Et circa hoc duo facit:
196. Then, at they seem to have held (411a16), he states the reason used in support of this theory; and concerning this, he does two things.
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primo ponit rationem, et improbat eam;
First, he states the reason and refutes it.
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secundo concludit quid manifestum sit ex omnibus quae dicta sunt, ibi: manifestum igitur etc.
Second, at it is evident (411a24; [198]), he draws a general conclusion from all the foregoing discussions.
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Circa primum duo facit.
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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Primo enim ponit rationem opinionis dicens quod ratio quare dicti philosophi opinari videntur animam esse hic, id est in omnibus elementis, <est> quia ipsi volebant quod totum et partem in elementis, cum sint simplicia, essent similis speciei; unde cum viderent et opinarentur quod pars continentis, id est aeris, intercepta in corporibus animalium per inspirationem et respirationem sit causa quare animalia fiant animata et sic anima, necessarium erat eis dicere animam esse similis speciei partibus, id est totum continens esse animatum.
First, he presents the reason why some philosophers seem to have held that a soul existed in these, that is, in all the elements: because they thought that the whole and the parts1 in elements were of a like species, since the elements are simple. Observing that that part of the containing element, that is, the air, which came into contact with the bodies of animals through their inhaling and exhaling, was the cause and principle of animals becoming ensouled, they thought it necessary to conclude that the soul of the whole was of the same specific nature as the parts, that is to say, that all the containing air was ensouled.
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197. Secundo vero cum dicit: si autem aer etc., improbat dictam rationem dicens quod, si aer discertus et attractus est similis speciei toti aeri, sequetur quod anima animalis sit similis partis animae totius aeris; sed constat quod anima animalis cuiuslibet est dissimilis partis animae aeris, quia una ipsius, scilicet anima aeris, existet, id est immortalis, secundum eos, utpote quae semper vivificat et vivificavit omnia viva, aliud autem, scilicet anima huius vel illius animalis, non existet, id est est mortalis, secundum eos. Necesse est ergo alterum duorum inconvenientium sequi ex hoc, scilicet quod si aer sit similis partis, scilicet ille qui est intra et ille qui est extra, et anima etiam, quod improbatum est; aut, si ipsa anima est dissimilis partis et aer similium, tunc sequitur quod anima non sit in qualibet parte omnis, idest totius aeris, quod est contra eos qui totum aerem animatum ponebant.
197. At however, if the air (411a20), he refutes this argument. The assumption is that, because the portion of the air removed and inhaled by an animal is of a like species to the air as a whole, the soul of the animal is, as it were, a portion of the soul of the whole air. But on their own principle this is clearly false; for, according to them, the soul of each animal is heterogenous with the soul of air, because one of them, namely, the soul of air, exists, that is, is immortal, as that which has never ceased from vivifying living beings,1 whereas the soul of this or that animal does not exist, that is, is mortal. It is necessary, therefore, that one of two incongruities flow from this. If all the parts of air, those outside and those breathed in, are alike, then the same is true of the soul; but this has been disproved. But if the soul’s parts are dissimilar while the air’s parts are similar, then the soul is not in every part of the whole, that is, of the whole air, which is against those who said that all the air had a soul.
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198. Consequenter cum dicit: manifestum igitur ex dictis est etc., concludit ex omnibus quae dicta sunt de opinionibus antiquorum quod neutrum illorum quod ipsi attribuebant animae sit verum et bene dictum, eo modo quo ipsi dixerunt, scilicet quod neque cognoscere inest animae ex eo quod ex elementis, sicut ipsi ponebant, neque etiam motus seu moveri inest ei ex hoc quod ex dictis elementis constabat secundum eos. Et hoc satis aperte et clare patet inspicienti ad supra dicta.
198. Then, at it is evident (411a24), Aristotle concludes this part of the discussion of earlier opinions. Neither of these things that they attribute to the soul, in the way in which they said it, is true or well said, namely, that knowledge in the soul is a consequence of its being composed of elements (as they asserted) and that movement or being moved is in it because it was composed of these elements. So much should be clear to anyone who has followed the discussion up to the present.
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L. 14 (Α.5, 411a26–411b30)The unity of the soul
Duas quaestiones proponit et solvit; videlicet, num variae animae operationes uni tantum animae conveniant, vel diversis eius potentiis; et vitae ipsius quodnam sit principium
The unity of the soul
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Quoniam autem cognoscere animae est et sentire et opinari, adhuc autem concupiscere et deliberare et omnino appetitus, fit autem et secundum locum motus ab anima in animalibus, adhuc autem et augmentum et status et decrementum, utrum toti animae unumquodque horum insit, et omni et intelligimus et sentimus et aliorum unumquodque facimus et patimur, aut partibus alteris altera? Et vivere igitur utrum in aliquo horum sit uno aut in pluribus aut in omnibus, aut alia aliqua causa.
Since knowledge does belong to the soul, as does sensing and opining, as well as desiring and deliberating and all appetite; and moreover, as in animals there is local motion, and even growth, rest, and decrease, all from the soul; is each of these in the whole soul, and do we understand and sense and do and undergo every particular experience with the whole soul? Or does each require a different part? And is life itself in any one of these parts? Or in many? Or in all? Or is it from some quite distinct cause?
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Dicunt itaque quidam partibilem ipsam, et alio quidem intelligere, alio autem concupiscere.
Some say the soul is divided into parts, understanding with one part and desiring with another.
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Quid igitur continet animam, si partibilis est apta nata? Non enim utique corpus; videtur enim contrarium magis anima corpus continere: egrediente enim expirat et marcescit. Si igitur alterum aliquid unam ipsam facit, illud maxime utique erit anima. Oportebit autem iterum et illud quaerere utrum unum aut multi partium sit. Si quidem enim unum est, propter quid non mox et animam unum? Si vero divisibile, iterum ratio quaeret quid est continens, et sic utique procedet in infinitum.
If, then, the soul is apt by its nature to be divisible, what holds it together? Not the body, certainly; much rather the contrary seems to be true, that the soul holds the body together, for when it leaves, the body expires and falls to pieces. If there is some other thing that makes it one, this other is rather the soul. One would then have to ask, concerning this other, whether it be one or made of several parts. If it is one, why not call it too the soul straightaway? But if it is divisible, reason again demands what it is that holds this together? And so on to infinity.
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Dubitabit autem aliquis et de partibus ipsius, quam potentiam habet unaqueque in corpore. Si enim tota anima omne corpus continet, convenit et partium unamquamque continere aliquid corporis. Hoc autem assimilatur inpossibili: qualem enim partem aut quomodo intellectus continebit, grave est et fingere.
A further query arises about the soul’s parts: what power has each in the body? If the whole soul holds together the whole body, it would also be fitting if each of the parts controlled some part of the body. But this looks like an impossibility. For it is difficult even to imagine what part the intellect would hold together, or how.
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Videntur autem et plante divise vivere et animalium quaedam incisorum tanquam eandem habentia animam specie, etsi non numero; unaqueque quidem partium sensum habet et movetur secundum locum in quoddam tempus; si autem non permanent, nullum inconveniens est: instrumenta enim non habent quibus salvent naturam, sed nihil minus in utraque partium omnes inexistunt partes animae, et similis speciei sunt ad invicem et toti, ad invicem quidem sicut quae non separabiles sunt, toti autem animae tanquam indivisibili existente.
It is also held that plants live after being divided, as do certain divided animals also, as if they had a soul specifically one but not numerically. For each of these parts is endowed with sensation and moves locally for a certain time. If they are not long-lived, that is no objection: they have not the organs requisite for the preservation of their natures. Nevertheless, in each of the parts are to be found all the parts of the soul; and those separated parts are specifically the same as each other and as the whole; as each other, as if they were not separable; as the whole, as having an indivisible unity.
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Videtur autem et quae in plantis anima principium quoddam esse: hac enim sola communicant et animalia et plantae. Et ipsa quidem separatur a sensibili principio, sensum autem nullum sine hac habet.
Moreover, it would also seem that the principle in plants is some sort of soul. For plants have only this in common with animals, and while this is independent of the sensitive principle, nothing has sensation without having this.
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199. Quoniam autem cognoscere animae est etc. Positis opinionibus antiquorum philosophorum de anima et improbatis, consequenter philosophus movet quasdam dubitationes. Et circa hoc duo facit:
199. Since knowledge does belong to the soul (411a26). Having reviewed and criticized earlier opinions on the soul, the Philosopher proceeds now to some doubts. And first he does two things:
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primo enim movet ipsas quaestiones;
First, he puts some questions of his own.
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secundo vero solvit eas, ibi: dicunt itaque etc.
Second, he begins to answer them, at some say (411b5; [204]).
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Sciendum est autem quod operationes animae, scilicet sentire, intelligere, appetere, moveri secundum locum et augeri, possunt dupliciter accipi.
But first we have to realize that the activities of the soul, namely, sensation, understanding, desire, local motion, and growth, can be considered in two distinct ways.
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Quia vel secundum modum operandi et sic sunt tres potentiae animae et his attribuuntur huiusmodi actiones, potentiae scilicet vegetabilis, sensibilis et intellectualis
We can consider the mode of these activities; and from this point of view we can distinguish, underlying these activities, three powers of the soul: the vegetative, the sensitive, and the intellectual.
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200. (quae quidem differunt; nam nutritiva seu vegetabilis agit mediantibus qualitatibus activis et passivis, ut calidum, frigidum et huiusmodi, sensitiva vero seu sensus, licet non indigeat qualitatibus sensibilibus ad sentiendum, indiget tamen organo corporali; intellectus vero neutro istorum indiget, quia nec qualitatibus nec per organum intelligit, sed perficitur absque aliquo organo).
200. And these powers differ. For while the vegetative or nutritive power acts through active and passive qualities, such as heat and cold and the like, the sensitive power (or sensation) requires no such sensible qualities for sensing, though it does depend on corporeal organs. But the intellectual requires neither of these, since it understands neither by means of sensible qualities, nor through an organ, but is completed without any organ.
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201. Si autem accipiamus huiusmodi actiones secundum genera actionum, sic sunt quinque potentiae, et sunt nutritivum, sensitivum, motivum secundum locum, appetitivum, et intellectivum; actiones horum sunt sentire, nutrire, movere, et appetere et intelligere.
201. But if we consider these activities according to their different kinds, then we distinguish five powers with five corresponding activities: the nutritive, sensitive, locomotive, appetitive, and intellectual powers, whose actions are to take nourishment, to sense, to move, to desire, and to understand.
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202. Et ideo cum philosophus de anima secundum suam totalitatem secundum opiniones antiquorum supra tractasset et reprobasset eas, hic inquirit de partibus et operationibus ipsarum partium et movet duas quaestiones,
202. Therefore, having discussed and criticized earlier opinions on the soul as a whole, the Philosopher begins now an inquiry into the parts and the activities of those parts. And he proposes two questions.
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quarum prima talis est: utrum operationes animae quae sunt cognoscere et sentire, quantum ad sensum, et opinari, quantum ad intellectum, adhuc concupiscere, quantum ad concupiscibilem, deliberare, quantum ad rationalem, et omnino appetitus, quod est in plus quia concludit cum his duobus irascibilem, et moveri secundum locum et augeri et stare et diminui, conveniant toti animae, ut scilicet unumquodque horum sit in omni parte animae, id est secundum quamlibet partem animae intelligamus, sentiamus, moveamur, appetamus et nutriamur, aut singulum istorum habeat singulam partem animae determinatam, ut scilicet alio intelligamus et alio sentiamus et sic de aliis.
The first question is whether activities of the soul, which are knowledge and sensing, which pertains to sense, opining, which pertains to understanding, desiring, which pertains to the concupiscible appetite, deliberating, which pertains to the rational, and all appetite (which is in several, since he includes the irascible appetite together with these two), together with local motion and rest, growth, and decrease—whether all these pertain to the whole soul in such a way that each one occurs in every part of the soul, so that with each part we understand, sense, move, desire, and assimilate food; or whether the truth is not rather that each activity has its own determinate part, that is to say, that with one part we understand, with another we sense, and so on.
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203. Secunda quaestio est quia, dato quod quaelibet operatio animae habeat specialem partem, iterum erit quaestio utrum hoc quod est vivere conveniat alicui partium, ita quod sit in aliquo uno aut in pluribus partibus aut in omnibus, et si non in his, utrum sit ex aliquo alio.
203. The second question is this. Granted that each activity has its special part of the soul, is this true of the activity of simply being alive? Is this activity proper to any one of these parts? Or many? Or all? Or does it perhaps belong to some other part?
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204. Consequenter cum dicit: dicunt itaque etc., respondet ad quaestiones positas;
204. Then, at some say (411b5), he answers these questions in order.
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et primo ad primam;
First, he answers the first one;
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secundo vero ad secundam, ibi: videtur autem et quae in plantis etc.
second, he answers the second, at moreover, it would seem also that the principle (411b27; [209]).
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Respondens autem primae quaestioni, primo ponit opinionem quorumdam philosophorum ad hoc;
As to the first one, he states and then rejects a view of certain philosophers;
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secundo improbat eam, ibi: quid igitur continet etc.
second, he disproves it at if, then, the soul is apt (411b6; [206]).
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Quidam enim dicunt quod huiusmodi operationes non conveniunt toti animae, sed partibus; dicunt enim animam esse partibilem, et alio intelligit et alio concupiscit, sicut qui ponebant sensitivam in cerebro, vivificativam in corde, et huiusmodi.
For some say that the activities of the soul do not belong to the whole soul but to its parts; for they say the soul is divisible, and that it understands with one and desires with another, just as some people hold that the sensitive power is in the brain, the vital power in the heart, and so on.
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205. Sed huiusmodi opinio est quodammodo vera et quodammodo falsa, quia, si in anima intelligas diversas partes potentiales, sic est verum quod anima habet diversas partes et vires, et alia intelligit, et alia sentit; anima enim est quoddam totum potentiale et pars accipitur ibi potentialis respectu totius potestativi; si vero intelligatur quod anima sit quaedam magnitudo seu quantitas et dividatur in diversas partes quantitativas, sic est falsa. Isti vero philosophi intelligebant animam esse partibilem secundum hunc modum et addebant plus, quod huiusmodi potentiae animae erant diversae animae.
205. Now, this is in a way true and in a way false. If you take it to mean that the soul has different potential parts, then it is quite true that it has diverse parts and powers, and that one understands by one part and senses by another. For the soul is a certain potential whole, and a potential part is taken there in respect to its whole capacity. But if you take it quantitatively, as though the soul were of a certain magnitude or quantity divided into diverse quantitative parts, then this opinion is false. And this was how the philosophers in question thought of the soul as divisible—even to the extent that they made out the soul’s different powers to be different souls.
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206. Consequenter cum dicit: quid igitur continet etc., improbat philosophus opinionem praedictam per tres rationes.
206. Next, at if, then, the soul is apt (411b6), Aristotle disproves this last opinion with three arguments.
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Quarum prima talis est. Diversa non possunt convenire nisi ab aliquo uniantur; si igitur sunt diversae animae in corpore, oportet quod ab aliquo contineantur et uniantur; sed nihil est quod contineat et uniat eas; ergo non sunt diversae.
The first is this. Different things cannot come together except by something else that unites them. Therefore, if the one body contained several souls, these would have to be held together and unified by something. But there is nothing else that can hold them together and unite them; therefore they are not diverse.
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Et quod nihil sit continens et uniens animam, sic patet, quia aut est corpus in quo est aut aliquid aliud; sed corpus non unit eam et continet, immo magis anima continet corpus: videmus enim quod egrediente anima a corpore, corpus deficit et marcescit; si aliquid aliud continet eam, tunc illud erit maxime anima, quia animae est continere et regere. Et si illud erit anima, tunc iterum oportebit quaerere utrum sit unum aut multipartium; et si dicatur quod multipartium est, iterum erit quaestio quid uniat illud et sic in infinitum; si vero dicatur quod est unum, quare non dicunt mox, id est ab ipso principio, quod anima sit unum? Non igitur anima est divisibilis in partes quantitativas, sicut ipsi dicunt.
That there is no other holding together and uniting the soul is clear as follows. Either it is the body that it is in or it is something else. But the body does not unite and hold it together; rather, the body is held together and unified by its soul; for we see that the body falls to pieces when the soul leaves it. If something else holds it together, then this will be soul most of all, since it pertains especially to the soul to hold together and to govern. And if this will be the soul, we must then ask whether this is itself one, or made of several parts. If of several parts, then what unites them? And so on to infinity. But if this is one, then why not call it the soul straightaway, that is, why not concede at the beginning that the soul is one? The soul, then, is not, as they thought, divisible into quantitative parts.
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207. Secundam rationem ponit cum dicit: dubitabit autem aliquis etc. Quia si diversae partes animae sunt in diversis partibus corporis, sequitur quod cuilibet operationi animae sit determinata pars corporis seu organum corporale; sed hoc est impossibile, quia intellectus non habet determinatam partem seu organum in corpore; non igitur anima habet diversas partes, sicut ipsi dicunt.
207. The second argument comes at a further query (411b14). If the different parts of the soul are in different parts of the body, then each soul-activity has a determinate part of the body or bodily organ. But this is impossible, since the intellect has no determinate part or organ in the body. Hence the soul does not have diverse parts, as they said.
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208. Tertiam rationem ponit cum dicit: videntur autem et plantae etc. Quia si diversae operationes animae sunt in diversis partibus, tunc non erit invenire partem in qua sint plures operationes simul nec erunt partes animalis similis speciei; sed nos invenimus partes aliquorum animatorum quae habent plures operationes et quorum anima est eiusdem speciei in toto et in partibus, sicut est in plantis et in quibusdam animalibus quae decisa vivunt, sicut est in animalibus anulosis, quorum quaelibet pars decisa sentit et movetur in quoddam tempus; et si dicatur quod non diu vivunt, non refert, quia non habent instrumenta quibus salvent eorum naturam, nihilominus tamen existunt in partibus diversis plures operationes animae et sunt similis speciei ad invicem et etiam toti; non ergo sunt diversae partes animae in diversis partibus corporis.
208. The third argument starts at it is also held (411b19). If the various activities of soul are in diverse parts, then no one part is the organ of several distinct activities, nor are there several parts in an animal body the same in species. But we do find that certain ensouled things have parts with several activities each and have a soul that is identical in species in the whole and in all the parts; for example, in plants and in certain segmented animals that go on living after being cut up, the cut off parts still sense and move for a certain time. And if it is said that these parts live for only a short time, this does not matter, since they lack the organs requisite for preservation of their natures. The point is that several soul-activities exist in several distinct corporeal parts at once, and the latter are specifically similar to each other and to the whole. Therefore, the soul is not divided according to the different parts of the body.
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Ratio autem quare decisa vivunt est quia, quanto anima est perfectior, tanto exercet operationes plures et diversas, et ideo ad exercendum huiusmodi operationes, necessaria sunt ei plura et diversa organa corporalia; quia vero anima rationalis est nobilior et perfectior, tanto maiorem exigit diversitatem organorum; anima autem quae est in animalibus anulosis et etiam in plantis, quia parum habet de perfectione nec exercet diversas operationes, ideo requirit corpus magis simile et salvatur in qualibet parte.
However, the reason why such animals go on living after being divided is that to the degree that a soul is more perfect, so too does it exercise more and diverse activities, and therefore to exercise such activities many and diverse bodily organs are needed. And because the rational soul is nobler and more perfect, to that degree it requires a greater diversity of organs; but the soul that is in segmented animals or even in plants, because it has only a modicum of perfection and does not exercise diverse activities, needs a body that is more uniform, and it is preserved in each of its parts.
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209. Consequenter cum dicit: videtur autem et quae in plantis etc., solvit secundam quaestionem. Circa quod sciendum quod vivere proprie est eorum quae habent motum et operationem ex seipsis sine hoc quod moveantur ab aliis; unde et vivere dupliciter accipitur: uno modo accipitur vivere quod est esse viventis, sicut dicit philosophus quod vivere viventibus est esse; alio modo operatio vitae.
209. Then, at moreover, it would also seem (411b27), he answers the second question. Concerning this we must realize that life belongs, properly speaking, to things that move and act of themselves without being moved by others. So “to live” has two meanings. It can mean the existence of a living thing, and in this sense the Philosopher says that for living things, to live is to exist.1 But it can also mean the activity of life.
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210. Dicendum ergo quod anima quae est in plantis, scilicet vegetabilis, videtur esse quoddam principium quod manifestat vitam in rebus inferioribus, quia sine hac nihil vivit et in hac sola communicant omnia quae vivunt, in aliis autem non omnia; animalia enim et plantae in vegetabili conveniunt solummodo.
210. Therefore one should say that the soul that is in plants, the vegetative soul, seems to be a certain principle that manifests life in lower realities; for nothing lives without it and all living things share in it, though in other ways their modes of life differ. For animals and plants have only vegetative activity in common.
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Item, vegetabilis potest esse sine sensibili et intelligibili, sed haec non possunt esse sine vegetabili: nullum enim animal habet sensum seu intellectum sine hac, scilicet vegetabili. Sic ergo vivere attribuitur isti principio, scilicet vegetabili, sicut sentire tactui, non tamen quod animal per solum vegetabile vivat, sed quia est primum principium in quo manifestatur vita.
Likewise, it can exist without sentient or intellectual activity, but the latter cannot exist without the vegetative; for no animal has sense or intellect without having vegetative life. Thus living is attributed to this principle (the vegetative) as sensing is attributed touch—not that animals live by the vegetative principle alone, but that it is the first principle in which life is manifested.
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Bk. 2Powers of the SoulDe animae potentiis
L. 1 (B.1, 412a3–412b9)The definition of the soul
Proponit dicenda; deinde nonnullis divisionibus propositis, dicit definitionem animae; et demum exponit, quomodo ipsi corpori uniatur
The definition of the soul
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Quae quidem a prioribus tradita de anima dicta sint; iterum autem tanquam ex principio redeamus temptantes determinare quid est anima et quae utique erit communissima ratio ipsius.
Thus far, we have spoken of what our predecessors handed down to us about the soul. But let us now reopen the inquiry from the beginning and endeavor to determine what the soul is and what is its most comprehensive account.
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Dicimus itaque unum quoddam genus eorum quae sunt substantiam. Huius autem aliud quidem sicut materiam, quod secundum se quidem non est hoc aliquid, aliud autem formam et speciem secundum quam dicitur iam hoc aliquid, et tertiam quae ex his; est autem materia quidem potentia, species autem endelichia. Et hoc dupliciter, hoc quidem sicut scientia, illud autem sicut considerare.
Now, we say that one of the kinds of things that are is substance. Of this, there is one thing, matter, which as such is not this particular thing; another, the form and species, according to which it is right away called “this particular thing”; and a third, that which is from both of these. Matter is, indeed, potency, and species, actuality; and this latter has two modes, one like knowledge, the other like thinking.
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Substantiae autem maxime videntur esse corpora. Et horum physica, haec enim aliorum principia. Physicorum autem alia quidem habent vitam, alia autem non habent; vitam autem dicimus id quod per se ipsum alimentum et augmentum et decrementum.
Bodies especially seem to be substances, and, among these, natural bodies, for these are the principles of the others. Of natural bodies, some have life, while others do not. We mean by “having life” that a thing can, through itself, take nourishment and grow and decrease.
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Quare omne corpus physicum participans vita substantia erit, substantia autem sic sicut composita. Quoniam autem est corpus et huiusmodi, vitam enim habens, non utique erit corpus anima; non est enim eorum quae in subiecto corpus, magis autem sicut subiectum et materia est.
Therefore, every natural body sharing in life will be a substance, but this sort will be substance as a composite. Since, however, it is a body, and a certain sort of body, for it is one having life, the soul will certainly not be the body. For the body is not one of the things that is in a subject; rather, it is as the subject and the matter.
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Necesse est ergo animam substantiam esse sicut speciem corporis physici potentia vitam habentis. Substantia autem, actus; huiusmodi igitur corporis actus.
It is necessary, then, that the soul be a substance, in the sense of the species, of a natural body having life in potency. Now, substance is act; it will, therefore, be the act of a body of this sort.
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Hic autem dicitur dupliciter, alius quidem sicut scientia, alius autem sicut considerare. Manifestum ergo quod sicut scientia: in existere enim animam, et sompnus et vigilia est, proportionale autem vigilantia quidem ipsi considerare, sompnus autem ipsi habere et non operari. Prior autem generatione in eodem scientia est. Unde anima est primus actus corporis physici potentia vitam habentis.
Now, this can mean one of two things: one, as is knowledge; another, as is thinking. It is plain, then, that it is like knowledge. For the soul remains in the body whether one is asleep or awake; whereas being awake is proportional to thinking, sleep to knowledge that is not in use. Now, knowledge is prior in the order of generation, in one and the same thing. The soul, therefore, is the first act of a natural body having life in potency.
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Tale autem quodcumque organicum. Organa autem et plantarum partes sunt, sed penitus simplices, ut folium fructiferi cooperimentum, fructiferum autem fructus; radices vero ori similes sunt: utraque enim trahunt alimentum.
However, such a body is anything organized. Even the parts of plants are organs, though very simple—the leaf is the covering of the pod, and the pod of the fruit; roots, too, are like mouths, for both draw in nourishment.
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Si autem aliquod commune in omni anima oportet dicere, erit utique actus primus corporis physici organici.
If, then, one should speak about something common to every soul, the soul will in fact be the first act of an organized natural body.
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Unde non oportet quaerere si unum est anima et corpus, sicut neque ceram et figuram neque omnino uniuscuiusque materiam et id cuius est materia. Unum enim et esse cum multipliciter dicatur, quod proprie est, actus est.
Hence, it is unnecessary to ask whether the soul and body are one, any more than whether the wax and the impression sealed on it are one, or in general, the matter of anything whatever and that of which it is the matter. For while “one” and “being” are predicated in many ways, that which is properly so is act.
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211. Quae quidem a prioribus, etc. Postquam Aristoteles posuit opinionem aliorum de anima in primo libro, accedit ad determinandum de anima secundum propriam opinionem et veritatem. Et circa hoc duo facit:
211. Thus far, we have spoken (412a3). Having reviewed, in book 1, other men’s opinions on the soul, Aristotle now begins book 2 of his treatise, in which he sets out what he himself holds on the matter.
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primo dicit de quo est intentio, continuans se ad praecedentia;
First, then, continuing what has gone before, he states his general aim;
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secundo prosequitur suam intentionem, ibi: dicimus itaque unum quoddam etc.
and second, at now we say that one (412a6; [212]), he starts to carry it out.
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Dicit ergo primo quod in primo libro dicta sunt ea quae tradita sunt a prioribus de anima. Sed oportet iterum quasi redeundo a principio determinare veritatem; quod quidem propter suam difficultatem magis oportet temptare quam securitatem de veritate invenienda praesumere.
He begins by saying that, despite all which has been handed down by our predecessors of the soul, it is necessary to go back to the beginning, as it were, to determine to the truth. The subject is so difficult that it is wiser to assume that the truth about it has not yet been discovered.
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Et cum supra in prooemio quaesitum fuerit utrum prius de ipsa anima determinandum sit aut de partibus eius, quasi hanc quaestionem determinans dicit quod a principio dicendum est quid est anima, in quo notificatur ipsa animae essentia, postea autem determinabitur de partibus sive potentiis ipsius. Et quasi huiusmodi rationem assignans, subiungit: et quae utique erit communissima ratio ipsius; cum enim ostenditur quid est anima, traditur id quod est commune, cum autem determinatur de unaquaque partium aut potentiarum ipsius, traditur id quod est speciale circa animam; hic est autem ordo doctrinae, ut a communibus ad minus communia procedatur, sicut ostendit philosophus in principio Physicorum.
And in answer to the question raised in the introduction to book 1,1 whether one should first define the soul, and afterwards its parts, he decides now to say what the soul is, which will make the very essence of the soul known, before coming to conclusions about its parts or powers. As though explaining this decision, he adds that we shall thus have acquired the most comprehensive account of soul. For when one shows what the soul is, one treats what is common, whereas when one determines each of its parts or powers, he treats only some special aspect of soul. And as he explains at the beginning of the Physics, this is the order of teaching: to begin with common things and end with things less common.2
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212. Deinde cum dicit: dicimus itaque etc., prosequitur suam intentionem quam proposuerat. Et dividitur in partes duas:
212. Beginning, then, at now we say (412a6), his treatment divides into two parts.
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in prima ostendit quid est anima;
In the first, he shows what soul in general is;
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in secunda determinat de partibus euis sive potentiis eius, ibi: potentiarum autem animae etc.
and in the second, starting at of the soul’s powers (414a29; [279]), he shows what are its parts or powers.
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Prima dividitur in duas:
The first part subdivides into two.
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in prima ponit definitionem animae quae est quasi demonstrationis conclusio;
In the first, he gives the definition of the soul that is like the conclusion of a demonstration.
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in secunda ponit definitionem animae quae est quasi demonstrationis principium, ibi: quoniam autem ex incertis quidem etc.
In the second, he gives the definition of the soul that is like the principle of a demonstration, at since it is from things uncertain (413a11; [245]).
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Sciendum est enim quod, sicut dicitur in I Posteriorum, omnis definitio aut est conclusio demonstrationis, sicut haec: tonitruum est continuus sonus in nubibus, aut est demonstrationis principium, sicut haec: tonitruum est extinctio ignis in nube, aut est demonstratio positione, id est ordine, differens, sicut haec: tonitruum est continuus sonus in nubibus propter extinctionem ignis in nube; in hac enim ponitur et demonstrationis conclusio et principium, sed non secundum ordinem syllogismi.
Note in passing that any definition, as he says in Posterior Analytics 1, is either the conclusion of a demonstration (for example, “thunder is a continuous noise in the clouds”) or it is the demonstration’s principle (for example, “thunder is the extinction of fire in the clouds”) or it is the demonstration itself but in a different order (for example, “thunder is a continuous noise in the clouds caused by the extinction of fire in the clouds,” in which the demonstration’s conclusion and principle both appear, though not in syllogistic order).1
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Prima autem pars dividitur in duas:
The first part is divided into two.
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in prima ponit definitionem primam animae;
In the first, he posits a first definition of the soul;
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in secunda manifestat eam, ibi: universaliter igitur dictum etc.
in the second, at it has been stated then (412b9; [235]), he gives an explanation of the definition.
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Prima dividitur in duas:
The first is divided into two.
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in prima praemittit quasdam divisiones ex quibus habetur via ad investigandum definitionem animae;
In the first, to clear the grounds so as to seek the soul’s definition, he makes some preliminary distinctions.
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in secunda investigat animae definitionem, ibi: quare omne corpus etc.
In the second, the defining proper begins, at therefore every natural body (412a15; [220]).
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213. Sciendum est autem quod, sicut docet philosophus in VII Metaphysicae, haec est differentia inter definitionem substantiae et accidentis quod in definitione substantiae nihil ponitur quod sit extra substantiam definiti: definitur enim unaquaeque substantia per sua principia materialia vel formalia; in definitione autem accidentis ponitur aliquid quod est extra essentiam definiti, scilicet subiectum; oportet enim subiectum poni in definitione accidentis, sicut cum dicitur: simitas est curvitas nasi; et hoc ideo est quia definitio significat quod quid est res; substantia autem est quid completum in suo esse et in sua specie; accidens autem non habet esse completum, sed dependens a substantia.
213. It should be noted here that, according to the Philosopher in Metaphysics 7, there is this difference between defining substance and defining accidents: in the former case nothing extrinsic to the substance being defined is included, for every substance is defined through its own material and formal principles; but in defining an accident, something outside the essence of the thing defined is referred to, that is, its subject—for the subject must be placed in the definition of the accident, as when one says, “snubness” is curvature of a nose.1 The reason is that a definition must express what a thing is, and while substance is something complete in its being and its species, accidents do not have complete being, but rather being dependent on substance.
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Similiter etiam nulla forma est quid completum in specie, sed complementum speciei competit substantiae compositae; unde substantia composita sic definitur quod in eius definitione non ponitur aliquid quod sit extra essentiam eius, in omni autem definitione formae ponitur aliquid quod est extra essentiam formae, scilicet proprium subiectum eius sive materia. Unde, cum anima sit forma, oportet quod in definitione ipsius ponatur materia sive subiectum eius.
In the same way, no form as such is a thing complete in species; rather, completion in species belongs to the composite substance; so the composite substance is so defined that nothing is placed within its definition that is outside its essence, while something is placed within the definition of a form that is outside the form’s essence, that is, its proper subject or matter. Hence, since the soul is a form, within its definition one must place its subject or matter.
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214. Et ideo in prima parte ponit duas divisiones, quarum prima necessaria est ad investigandum id quod in definitione animae ponitur ad exprimendam essentiam eius; aliam quae est necessaria ad investigandum id quod ponitur in definitione animae ad exprimendum subiectum ipsius, ibi: substantiae autem maxime etc.
214. So, in the first part of this section, he makes certain distinctions necessary for investigating what is placed within the soul’s definition for the sake of expressing its essence, and then, at bodies especially seem to be substances (412a11; [217]), things necessary for investigating what is placed in the soul’s definition for the sake of expressing its subject.
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Circa primum innuit tres divisiones.
As regards the former point, he alludes to three distinctions.
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Quarum prima est secundum quod ens dividitur in decem praedicamenta; et hanc innuit per hoc quod dicit quod substantia dicitur esse unum genus entium.
The first of which is that of being divided into the ten categories; this he hints at when he says that substance is reckoned to be one of the kinds of things that are.
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215. Secunda divisio est secundum quod substantia dividitur in materiam et formam et compositum: materia quidem est quae secundum se non est hoc aliquid, sed in potentia tantum ut sit hoc aliquid; forma autem est, secundum quam iam est hoc aliquid in actu; substantia vero composita est quae est hoc aliquid. Dicitur enim esse hoc aliquid aliquid demonstratum quod est completum in esse et specie, et hoc competit soli substantiae compositae in rebus materialibus; nam substantiae separatae, quamvis non sint compositae ex materia et forma, sunt tamen hoc aliquid, cum sint subsistens in actu et completae in natura sua; anima autem rationalis quantum ad aliquid potest dici hoc aliquid, secundum hoc quod potest esse per se subsistens, sed quia non habet speciem completam sed magis est pars speciei, non omnino competit ei quod sit hoc aliquid. Est ergo differentia inter materiam et formam quod materia est ens in potentia, forma autem est endelechia, id est actus, quo scilicet materia fit actu; unde ipsum compositum est ens actu.
215. The second distinction alluded to is that of substance into matter, form, and the composite of both. Matter is that which is as such not this particular thing (412a6) but is in mere potency to be this particular thing. Form, however, is that by which right away this particular thing is actual. And the composite substance is this particular thing; for that is said to be a particular thing which is something demonstrated, complete in existence and species; and among material realities, only the composite is such. For although separated substances are not composites of matter and form, they are still particular things, since they are actually subsisting and complete in their own nature. However, the rational soul in a certain respect can be called a particular thing—insofar as it can subsist through itself; but because it does not have a complete species, but is more part of a species, being a particular thing does not altogether belong to it. Matter, then, differs from form in this, that it is a being in potency, whereas form is the entelechy or act by which matter comes to be in act; whence the composite itself is the being in act.
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216. Tertia divisio est quod actus dicitur dupliciter, uno modo sicut scientia est actus, alio modo sicut considerare est actus. Et differentia horum actuum ex potentiis perpendi potest: dicitur enim aliquis in potentia grammaticus antequam acquirat habitum grammaticae discendo vel inveniendo, quae quidem potentia in actum reducitur quando iam aliquis habet habitum scientiae; sed tunc iterum est in potentia ad usum habitus cum non considerat in actu, et de hac potentia in actum reducitur cum actu considerat; sic igitur et scientia est actus et consideratio est actus.
216. Third, he distinguishes two senses of “act”: in one sense, as knowledge is an act; in the other, as thinking is an act. And the difference can be understood by relating these acts to their potencies. Before one acquires the grammatical habit and becomes a grammarian, whether by learning or by discovery, one is only potentially so; and this potency is reduced to act when someone has the habit of knowledge. But then again he is further in potency to the use of the habit when he is not actually thinking; and as regards this potency, he is reduced to act when he actually thinks. In this sense, then, knowledge is one act and thinking another.
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217. Deinde cum dicit: substantiae autem etc., ponit divisiones ex quibus investigatur id quod ponitur in definitione animae pertinens ad eius subiectum et innuit tres divisiones.
217. Then, at bodies especially (412a11), he alludes to three distinctions which are presupposed by his inquiry into the meaning of the definition of the soul, so far as the subject endowed with soul is concerned.
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Quarum prima est quod substantiarum quaedam sunt corpora et quaedam non sunt corpora, inter quas substantias maxime sunt manifestae corporales substantiae; nam substantiae incorporeae, quaecumque sint, immanifestae sunt eo quod sunt a sensibus remotae, sola ratione investigabiles. Hoc est ergo quod dicit, quod corpora maxime videntur esse substantiae.
The first distinction is that, of substances, some are bodies and some are not bodies. Among these substances, bodily substances are the most manifest: for whatever the incorporeal substances are, they are not manifest, since they are remote from our senses and are only discoverable by an exercise of the reason. Hence, he says that bodies especially seem to be substances.
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218. Secunda divisio est quod corporum quaedam sunt corpora physica, id est naturalia, quaedam non naturalia, sed artificialia. Homo enim et lignum et lapis sunt naturalia corpora, domus et securis sunt artificialia. Magis autem videntur substantiae corpora naturalia quam artificialia, quia corpora naturalia sunt principia artificialium:
218. The second distinction is between physical or natural bodies and certain non-natural bodies, artificial ones. For man and wood and stone are natural bodies, but a house or a saw is artificial. And of these, the natural bodies seem to be the more properly called substances, since natural bodies are the principles of artificial bodies.
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ars enim operatur ex materia quam natura ministrat, forma autem quae per artem inducitur est forma accidentalis, sicut figura vel aliquid huiusmodi; unde corpora artificialia non sunt in genere substantiae per suam formam, sed solum per suam materiam, quae est naturalis, habent ergo a corporibus naturalibus quod sint substantiae; unde corpora naturalia sunt magis substantiae quam corpora artificialia: sunt enim substantia non solum ex parte materiae, sed etiam ex parte formae.
For art works upon materials furnished by nature, but the form that is brought about by the art is an accidental form, such as a new shape and so forth. Whence artificial bodies are not in the genus of substance through their form, but only through their matter, which is natural, so they have it that they are substances from the natural bodies. Natural bodies, therefore, are substances more than artificial bodies are, for they are substance not merely on the side of their matter, but also on the side of their form.
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219. Tertia divisio est quod corporum naturalium quaedam habent vitam et quaedam non habent; illud autem dicitur habere vitam quod per se ipsum habet alimentum, augmentum et decrementum.
219. Third, he distinguishes between natural bodies that have life and ones that do not. For that is said to have life which can through itself have nourishment and grow and decrease.
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Sciendum autem est quod haec explanatio magis est per modum exempli quam per modum definitionis: non enim ex hoc solo quod aliquid habet augmentum et decrementum vivit, sed etiam ex hoc quod sentit et intelligit et alia opera vitae exercere potest; unde in substantiis separatis est vita ex hoc quod habent intellectum et voluntatem, ut patet in XI Metaphysicae, licet non sit in eis augmentum et alimentum;
Note here that this explanation is said by way of example rather than definition. For besides growth and decrease, living things may exhibit sensation and intellectual knowledge and other vital activities. Whence in separated substances, as is proved in the Metaphysics 11, there is life because they have understanding and will, though they cannot grow and do not take nourishment.1
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sed quia in istis generabilibus et corruptibilibus anima quae est in plantis, ad quam pertinent alimentum et augmentum ut in fine primi dictum est, est principium vitae, ideo hic quasi exemplariter exposuit habens vitam id quod habet alimentum et augmentum. Propria autem ratio vitae est ex hoc quod aliquid est natum movere se ipsum, large accipiendo motum, prout etiam intellectualis operatio motus quidam dicitur; ea enim sine vita esse dicimus quae ab exteriori tantum principio moveri possunt.
But because among the things that are generated and corrupt, the soul that is in plants (to which pertains nutrition and growth, as was said at the end of book 1) is the principle of life, this is why he explains by example what has life as what has nourishment and growth.1 However, the proper account of life is that something is naturally apt to move its very self, taking “movement” in its wide sense so as to include intellectual activity, which is said to be a certain movement. For we say that those things are without life which are moved only from an exterior principle.
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220. Deinde cum dicit: quare omne corpus etc., investigat animae definitionem, suppositis praemissis divisionibus. Et circa hoc tria facit:
220. After this, at therefore every natural body (412a15), he begins to define the soul, presupposing the distinctions already made. And his inquiry here has three parts.
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primo investigat partes definitionis;
First, he inquires into the elements of the definition taken separately;
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secundo ponit definitionem, ibi: si autem aliquod commune etc;
second, at if, then, one should speak about something common (412b4; [233]), he states the definition;
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tertio ex definitione data excludit quamdam dubitationem, ibi: unde non oportet quaerere etc.
third, at hence, it is unnecessary (412b6; [234]), he uses it to refute an objection.
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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primo investigat particulas definitionis quae pertinent ad essentiam animae;
First, he deals with the elements that pertain to the soul’s essence;
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secundo ea quae pertinent ad essentiam subiecti, ibi: tale autem [est] quodcumque organicum, etc.
and second, to those that refer to its subject, at however, such a body is anything organized (412a28; [230]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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primo investigat hanc particulam quod anima est actus;
First, he considers the statement that the soul is an act;
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secundo hanc quod est actus primus, ibi: hic autem dicitur dupliciter etc.
and second, at now, this can mean one of two things (412a22; [227]), he considers the statement that it is the first act.
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Concludit ergo primo ex praedictis quod, cum corpora physica maxime videantur esse substantiae et omne corpus habens vitam sit corpus physicum, necesse est dicere quod omne corpus habens vitam sit substantia et cum sit ens actu, necesse est quod sit substantia composita. Quia vero cum dico corpus habens vitam, duo dico, scilicet quod est corpus et quod est huiusmodi corpus, scilicet habens vitam, non potest dici quod illa pars corporis habentis vitam quae dicitur corpus sit anima: per animam enim intelligimus id quo habens vitam vivit, unde oportet quod intelligatur sicut aliquid in subiecto existens (ut accipiatur hic large subiectum, non solum prout subiectum dicitur aliquid ens actu, per quem modum accidens dicitur esse in subiecto, sed etiam secundum quod materia prima, quae est ens in potentia, dicitur subiectum), corpus autem quod recipit vitam magis est sicut subiectum et materia quam sicut aliquid in subiecto existens.
His first conclusion, then, in line with what has been said already, is that since natural bodies seem to be substances in the fullest sense, and every body that has life is a natural body, one must say that every body that has life is a substance and, since it is a being in act, it must be a composite substance. But because to say “body that has life” is to say two things, that it is a body and that a certain sort of body, that is, one that has life, it cannot be said that the part of the body that has life, which is called the “body,” is the soul. For by “soul” we understand that by which what has life is alive; it must be understood, therefore, as something existing in a subject (taking “subject” in a broad sense to include not only those actual beings that are subjects of their accidental modifications, but also the first matter, which is a potential being). But the body that receives life rather is as the subject and matter, not in a subject.
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221. Sic igitur, cum sit triplex substantia, scilicet compositum, materia, et forma, et anima non est ipsum compositum, quod est corpus habens vitam, neque est materia, quae est corpus subiectum vitae, relinquitur per locum a divisione quod anima sit substantia sicut forma vel species talis corporis, scilicet corporis physici habentis in potentia vitam.
221. Since, then, there are three sorts of substance: the composite, matter, and form, and since the soul is neither the composite itself (the body that has life) nor its matter (the body underlying the life), what is left in the path of division is that the soul is a substance as form or species of a certain sort of body, that is, a natural body having life in potency.
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222. Dicit autem habentis vitam potentia, et non simpliciter habentis vitam: nam corpus habens vitam intelligitur substantia composita vivens, compositum autem non ponitur in definitione formae, sed materia; materia autem corporis vivi est id quod comparatur ad vitam sicut potentia ad actum, et hic actus est anima, secundum quam corpus vivit; sicut si dicerem quod figura est actus, non quidem corporis figurati in actu, hoc enim est compositum ex figura et corpore, sed corporis quod est subiectum figurae, quod comparatur ad figuram sicut potentia ad actum.
222. Note that he does not say simply “having life” but “having life in potency.” For “a body that has life” is understood to be the living composite substance; and the composite is not placed in the definition of the form, but its matter is. On the other hand, the matter of a living body stands to the body’s life as a potency to its act; and the soul is precisely the actuality whereby the body is alive. It is as though we were to say that shape is the actuality not of the actually shaped body—for this is composed of the shape and the body—but rather of the body as subject to shape, which body is related to the shape as potency is related to act.
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223. Et ne aliquis crederet quod anima sic esset actus sicut aliqua forma accidentalis actus est, ad hoc removendum subdit quod anima est sic substantia sicut actus, id est sicut forma, et quia omnis forma est in determinata materia, sequitur quod sit forma talis corporis quale dictum est.
223. But lest it be thought that soul is an actuality in the manner of any merely accidental form, he adds that it is substance as act, that is, as a form. And since every form is in a determinate matter, it follows that the soul is the form of a sort of body, of the sort described.
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224. Sciendum est autem quod haec est differentia inter formam accidentalem et substantialem, quod forma accidentalis non facit ens actu simpliciter, sed ens actu tale vel tantum, utputa magnum vel album vel aliquid aliud huiusmodi, forma autem substantialis facit esse actu simpliciter; unde forma accidentalis advenit subiecto iam existenti in actu, forma autem substantialis non advenit subiecto iam praeexistenti in actu, sed existenti in potentia tantum, scilicet materiae primae.
224. Note that the difference between accidental form and substantial form is that, whereas the former does not make a being in act, simply speaking, but only a being in act this way or so much—for example, as big, or as white, or something of this sort—whereas the substantial form make it exist simply speaking. Hence, the accidental form comes to a subject actually already existing, but the substantial form does not come to a subject that is already actually existing, but to one existing only in potency, that is, to prime matter.
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Ex quo patet quod impossibile est unius rei esse plures formas substantiales, quia prima faceret ens actu simpliciter et omnes aliae advenirent subiecto iam existenti in actu; unde accidentaliter advenirent: non enim facerent ens actu simpliciter, sed secundum quid.
That is why it is clear that there cannot be more than one substantial form in any one thing; for the first would make the thing an actual being, simply speaking, and all others would come to an already actually existing subject; whence, they would come to it accidentally; for they would not make a being in act simply speaking, but a being in act in a qualified sense.
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225. Per quod tollitur positio Avicebron in libro fontis vitae, qui posuit quod secundum ordinem generum et specierum est ordo plurium formarum substantialium in una et eadem re, ut puta quod in hoc individuo hominis est una forma per quam est substantia et alia per quam est corpus et tertia per quam est animatum corpus et sic de aliis. Oportet enim secundum praemissa dicere quod una et eadem forma substantialis sit per quam hoc individuum est hoc aliquid sive substantia et per quam est corpus et animatum corpus et sic de aliis: forma enim perfectior dat materiae et hoc quod dat forma minus perfecta et adhuc amplius. Unde anima non solum facit esse substantiam et corpus, quod etiam facit forma lapidis, sed etiam facit esse animatum corpus; non est ergo sic intelligendum quod anima sit actus corporis et quod corpus sit eius materia et subiectum, quasi corpus sit constitutum per unam formam quae faciat eum esse corpus et superveniat ei anima faciens ipsum esse vivum corpus, sed quia ab anima est et quod sit et quod corpus sit et quod sit corpus vivum; sed hoc quod est esse corpus, quod est imperfectius, est quasi materiale respectu vitae.
225. We can therefore reject the view of Avicebron (in the book called Fons Vitae) that there is an order of several substantial forms in one and the same thing that follows the order of genera and species. Thus, an individual man would have one form whereby he is a substance, another whereby he is a body, another whereby he is an ensouled body, and so on. For according to what we have said we must say that there is one and the same substantial form whereby this individual is this particular thing or substance and whereby he is a body and an ensouled body and so on. For the more perfect form can give to matter all that a less perfect form gives and more. Whence the soul makes not only substance and body exist (as even a stone’s form does) but also makes that body be ensouled. We must not think, therefore, that the soul is the act of the body and the body is its matter and subject in such a way that the body is constituted by one form that makes it be a body and that the soul supervenes on it, making it be a living body—but rather, that the body both exists and is a body and is a living body is due to the soul. But the fact that it is a body, which is more imperfect, is as material relative to life.
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226. Et inde est quod recedente anima, non remanet idem corpus specie; nam oculus et caro in mortuo non dicuntur nisi aequivoce, ut patet per philosophum in VII Metaphysicae; recedente enim anima, succedit alia forma substantialis quae dat aliud esse specificum, cum corruptio unius non sit sine generatione alterius.
226. Therefore, when the soul departs, specifically the same body is not still there; for the eyes and flesh of a dead man, as is shown in Metaphysics 7, are not called eyes and flesh except in an equivocal way.1 For when the soul leaves the body, another substantial form succeeds it, one that gives it another specific existence; for the corruption of one thing does not exist without the generation of another.
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227. Deinde cum dicit: hic autem dicitur dupliciter, venatur secundam particulam definitionis. Et dicit quod actus dicitur dupliciter, alius sicut scientia et alius sicut considerare, ut supra expositum est. Et manifestum est quod anima est actus sicut scientia, quia in hoc quod anima existit, inest animali et somnus et vigilia; et vigilia quidem assimilatur considerationi, quia sicut consideratio est usus scientiae, ita vigilia est usus sensuum; sed somnus assimilatur habitui scientiae quando aliquis secundum ipsum non operatur, in somno enim quiescunt virtutes animales.
227. Then, at now, this can mean (412a22), he examines the second term in the definition. He observes that there are two sorts of act, as we explained above, one is as knowledge and another is as is thinking. And it is plain that the soul is like knowledge; for it is due to the soul’s being present that an animal is able to be both asleep or awake; and being awake is similar to thinking (for just as thinking is a use of one’s knowledge, so being awake is the use of one’s senses), but sleep is more like possessed knowledge when someone is not active relative to it, for in sleep an animal’s powers are at rest.
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228. Horum autem duorum actuum, scientia est prior generatione in eodem, comparatur enim consideratio ad scientiam sicut actus ad potentiam; actus autem, ut habetur in IX Metaphysicae, natura est prior potentia, est enim finis et complementum potentiae; sed ordine generationis et temporis, universaliter loquendo, actus etiam est prior potentia (nam id quod est in potentia reducitur in actum per aliquid ens actu), sed in uno et eodem, potentia est prior actu; nam aliquid est primo in potentia et postea actus fit; et propter hoc dicit quod scientia est prior generatione in eodem quam consideratio.
228. Now, of these two actualities, knowledge is prior in the order of generation in one and the same thing; for it stands to thinking as potency to act. But by nature act is prior to potency (as is said in Metaphysics 9), for it is the end and completion of potency.1 But even in the order of generation and time, universally speaking act is prior to potency; for the potential is actualized by some actual being. But in one and the same thing, potency is prior to act; for something is first in potency and afterward becomes actual. Hence, his remark that knowledge is prior (that is, to thinking) in the order of generation in one and the same thing.
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229. Unde concludit quod, cum anima sit actus sicut scientia, quod sit actus primus corporis physici potentia vitam habentis. Sciendum autem quod philosophus dicit animam esse actum primum non solum ut distinguat animam ab actu qui est operatio, sed etiam ut distinguat eam a formis elementorum, quae semper habent suam actionem nisi impediantur.
229. Therefore he concludes that, since the soul is act as knowledge, it is the first act of a natural body having life in potency. The Philosopher says the soul is “first act” not only to distinguish soul from the act that is activity, but also to distinguish it from the forms of the elements, for these always have their own activities, unless impeded.
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230. Deinde cum dicit: tale autem quodcumque organicum etc., venatur particulam quae est ex parte subiecti. Et quia dixerat quod anima est actus corporis physici habentis vitam in potentia, et dicit quod tale est omne corpus organicum. Et dicitur corpus organicum quod habet diversitatem organorum;
230. Next, at however, such a body (412a28), he examines that part of the definition that has to do with the soul’s subject. And because the soul is the act of a natural body having life in potency, he also says that such is every organized body. And a body is called “organized” when it has a diversity of organs.
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diversitas autem organorum necessaria est in corpore suscipiente vitam propter diversas operationes animae: anima enim, cum sit forma perfectissima inter formas rerum corporalium, est principium diversarum operationum et ideo requirit diversitatem organorum in suo perfectibili; formae vero rerum inanimatarum propter sui imperfectionem sunt principia paucarum operationum, unde non exigunt diversitatem organorum in suis perfectibilibus;
But diversity of organs is required in the body receiving life on account of the various activities of the soul. For the soul, which is the most perfect of the forms of bodily realities, is the principle of many different activities, so that it requires a diversity of organs in what is perfectible by it. But the forms of realities without soul, because of their imperfection, are the principles of few activities; hence, they do not need a diversity of organs in things perfectible by them.
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231. inter animas autem anima plantarum imperfectior invenitur, unde in plantis minor est diversitas organorum quam in animalibus, et ideo ad ostendendum quod omne corpus suscipiens vitam est organicum, accipit argumentum ex plantis in quibus est minor diversitas organorum. Et hoc est quod dicit quod etiam plantarum partes sunt diversa organa, sed partes plantarum sunt penitus simplices, id est consimiles. Non enim est in eis tanta diversitas sicut in partibus animalium; pes enim animalis ex diversis partibus compositus est, scilicet carne, nervo, osse et huiusmodi, sed partes organicae plantarum non habent talem diversitatem partium ex quibus componantur.
231. Now, among souls, the soul of plants is found to be rather imperfect; this is why in plants there is less diversity of organs than there is in animals. Therefore to show that every body that admits life is organized, he takes his argument from plants, where there is less diversity of organs. So he says that even the parts of plants are diverse organs, but the parts of plants are very simple, that is, like to one another; for they lack the differentiation that we find in the parts of animals. Thus, the foot of an animal is made up of different parts, such as flesh, nerves, bones, and so forth, but the organized parts of plants do not have such a diversity of the parts from which they are composed.
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232. Et quod partes plantarum sint organicae, manifestat per hoc quod diversae partes sunt ad diversas operationes, sicut folium est ad cooperimentum corticis vel fructiferi, id est illius partis in qua fructus nascitur, cortex autem vel fructiferum, ad cooperimentum fructus; radices autem in plantis sunt proportionabiles ori animalium, quia utraque attrahunt alimentum, scilicet radix in plantis et os in animalibus.
232. And he manifests that the parts of plants are organized from the fact that diverse parts are for diverse activities. For example, a leaf functions as a covering for the pod, or fruit-bearing part, that is, for the part in which the fruit is born. The pod, again, protects the fruit itself. So, too, the roots have a function in a plant proportional to that of the mouth in an animal, because they draw in nourishment.
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233. Deinde cum dicit: si autem aliquod commune etc., colligit ex omnibus praedictis definitionem animae. Et dicit quod, si aliqua definitio communis debeat assignari quae conveniat omni animae, erit haec: anima est actus primus corporis physici organici. Non autem oportet addere, potentia vitam habentis: loco enim huius ponitur organicum, ut ex dictis patet.
233. Next, at if, then (412b4), he gathers all these observations into one definition of the soul, saying that if some definition should cover every soul, it will be this: the soul is the first act of an organized natural body. He does not need to add “having life potentially,” for this is implied in “organized,” as is clear from what was said.
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234. Deinde cum dicit: unde non oportet quaerere etc., ex definitione data solvit quamdam dubitationem. Fuit enim a multis dubitatum quomodo ex anima et corpore fieret unum et quidam ponebant aliqua media esse quibus anima corpori uniretur et quodammodo colligaretur, sed haec dubitatio iam locum non habet, cum ostensum sit quod anima sit forma corporis. Et hoc est quod dicit quod non oportet quaerere si ex anima et corpore fit unum, sicut nec dubitatur hoc circa ceram et figuram neque omnino circa aliquam materiam et formam cuius est materia. Ostensum est enim in VIII Metaphysicae quod forma per se unitur materiae sicut actus eius, et idem est materiam uniri formae quam materiam esse in actu. Et hoc est etiam quod hic dicit quod, cum unum et ens multipliciter dicatur, scilicet de ente in potentia et de ente in actu, id quod proprie est ens et unum, est actus: nam sicut ens in potentia non est ens simpliciter sed secundum quid, ita non est unum simpliciter sed secundum quid; sic enim dicitur aliquid unum sicut et ens. Et ideo sicut corpus habet esse per animam sicut per formam, ita et unitur animae immediate inquantum anima est forma corporis; sed inquantum est motor, nihil prohibet aliquid esse medium, prout una pars movetur ab anima mediante alia.
234. Then, at hence, it is unnecessary (412b6), he applies this definition to solve a difficulty. There had been much uncertainty about how one thing could come to be from the soul and body. Some had supposed a sort of medium uniting the two together by a sort of bond. But the difficulty can be set aside now that it has been shown that the soul is the form of the body. As he says, it is unnecessary to ask whether soul and body together make one thing any more than it is to ask the same about wax and the impression sealed on it, or about any other matter and its form. For, as is shown in Metaphysics 8, form is through itself united to matter as its actuality, and for matter to be united to form is the same as matter being in act.1 Moreover, although, as he goes on to say, being and one are predicated in many ways (in one way, of potential being, and in another way, of actual being), that is properly a being and a unity is act. For just as a potential being is not a being simply speaking but in a certain respect, so it is not one simply speaking but in a certain respect; for something is said to be one just as it is said to be a being. Therefore, just as the body has its being from the soul as from its form, so too, it is united to the soul immediately inasmuch as the soul is the body’s form; but insofar as it is its mover, there is no reason why it should not move it through something intermediate, insofar as one part is moved by the soul by means of another part.
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L. 2 (B.1, 412b9–413a10)The definition of soul and body explained
Explicata animae definitione, exponit quomodo ea non sit a corpore separabilis
The definition of soul and body explained
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Universaliter quidem igitur dictum est quid sit anima: substantia enim est quae secundum rationem. Hoc autem est quod quid erat esse huiusmodi corpori, sicut si aliquod organorum physicum esset corpus, ut dolabra: erat quidem enim dolabrae esse substantia ipsius, et anima hoc; divisa autem hac, non utique amplius dolabra erit, sed aut aequivoce, nunc autem est dolabra. Non enim huiusmodi corporis quod quid est esse et ratio anima, sed physici huiuscemodi habentis in se ipso principium motus et status.
It has been stated universally, then, what the soul is. For it is the substance that is according to account; and this is the what-it-was-to-be for a certain sort of body, just as if some tool, for example, an axe, were a natural body, for “being-an-axe” would be its substance, and this would be its soul. Apart from this, it would no longer be an axe, expect equivocally. But now it is an axe. For the soul is not the what-it-was-to-be and account of such a body as this, but of this sort of natural body, one that has within itself a principle of movement and rest.
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Considerare autem in partibus oportet quod dictum est. Si enim esset oculus animal, anima utique ipsius, visus esset: hic enim substantia est oculi quae secundum rationem, oculus autem materia visus est, quo deficiente non est adhuc oculus nisi equivoce, sicut lapideus aut depictus. Oportet igitur accipere quod est in parte in toto vivente corpore; proportionaliter namque habet sicut pars ad partem, totus sensus ad totum corpus sensitivum secundum quod huiusmodi.
Now, what has been said should be considered with respect to its parts. For if the eye were an animal, sight would in fact be its soul. For this is the eye’s substance according to account, whereas the eye is the matter of sight, and apart from this it is an eye no longer, save equivocally, as with a painted or stone eye. What, therefore, holds of a part, we ought to apply to the whole living body; for the relation of a part of the soul to a part of the body corresponds to that of sensitivity as a whole to the whole sensitive body, considered as such.
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Est autem non abiciens animam potentia ens ut vivat, sed quod habens; semen autem et fructus potentia huiusmodi corpus est. Sicut quidem igitur incisio et visio, sic et vigilantia actus, ut autem visus et potentia organi, anima; corpus autem quod potentia est. Sed, sicut oculus est pupilla et visus, et ibi anima et corpus animal.
Now, that which has cast off its soul is not in potency to life, but rather, that which has life. But seed and fruit are only in potency such a body. As cutting or seeing is act, so is being awake, whereas the soul is like sight and the capacity of a tool; the body, however, is like the thing in potency. But as an eye is the pupil and sight, so the animal is the body and soul.
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Quod quidem igitur non sit anima separabilis a corpore, aut partes quaedam ipsius, si partibilis apta nata est, non inmanifestum est: quarundam enim actus partium est ipsarum. At vero secundum quasdam nihil prohibet, propter id quod nullius corporis sunt actus. Amplius autem immanifestum si sic corporis actus anima, sicut nauta navis. Figuraliter quidem igitur sic determinetur et describatur de anima.
Therefore, it is not unclear that the soul is not separable from the body—or certain parts of it are inseparable, if it is naturally apt to be divided—for it is of certain bodily parts themselves that it is the act. But with respect to certain parts, there is nothing to prevent this, because these are not acts of any body. However, it is unclear whether the soul is the act of the body in the way that a sailor is of his ship. Let these remarks, then, serve to describe and determine the soul in outline.
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235. Universaliter quidem igitur etc. Posita definitione animae, philosophus hic eam manifestat. Et circa hoc duo facit:
235. It has been stated universally, then (412b9; [236]). The Philosopher now begins to make manifest the definition of the soul just given. And concerning this he does two things.
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primo manifestat definitionem praemissam;
First, he makes the definition manifest.
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secundo ex definitione manifestata quamdam veritatem concludit, ibi: quod quidem igitur non sit anima etc.
Second, at therefore it is evident (413a4; [242]), he draws a conclusion from it as manifested.
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Circa primum duo facit:
As regards the first, he does two things:
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primo manifestat definitionem animae quantum ad id quod in definitione praedicta ponitur ex parte ipsius animae;
in the first of which, he manifests the definition as regards what is placed in it on the side of the soul itself;
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secundo quantum ad id quod ibi ponitur ex parte subiecti, ibi: est autem non abiiciens animam etc.
while in the second, where he says, now, that which has cast off (412b25; [240]), he manifests it as regards what is placed in it on the side of its subject.
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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primo manifestat definitionem animae ex similitudine rerum artificialium;
First, he manifests the definition of the soul based on a likeness with artificial things.
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secundo ex partibus eius, ibi: considerare autem in partibus oportet etc.
Second, at now, what has been said (412b17; [239]), he manifests it by considering its parts.
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Quia enim formae artificiales accidentia sunt quae sunt magis nota quoad nos quam formae substantiales utpote sensui propinquiora, ideo convenienter rationem animae, quae est forma substantialis, per comparationem ad formas accidentales manifestat;
For artificial forms are accidents that are more known to us than are substantial forms, insofar as they are closer to sensation; this is why he fittingly manifests the account of the soul, which is a substantial form, through a comparison with accidental forms.
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similiter etiam partes animae sive potentiae eius manifestiores sunt quoad nos quam ipsa anima (procedimus enim in cognitione animae ab obiectis in actus, ab actibus in potentias, per quas anima ipsa nobis innotescit), unde convenienter etiam per partes ratio animae manifestatur.
Likewise even the soul’s parts or powers are more manifest to us than is the soul itself (for all our inquiry into the soul has to start from objects to acts, and from the acts to the powers, through which the soul itself is made known to us); that is why the account of the soul becomes manifest also through its parts.
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236. Dicit ergo primo quod dictum est in universali quid sit anima, cum praedicta definitio omni animae conveniat: dictum est enim quod anima est substantia quae est forma a qua accipitur ratio rei. Est autem differentia inter formam quae est substantia et formam quae non est substantia: nam forma accidentalis, quae non est in genere substantiae, non pertinet ad essentiam sive quidditatem subiecti (non enim albedo est de essentia corporis albi), sed forma substantialis est de essentia sive de quidditate subiecti. Sic igitur anima dicitur forma substantialis quia est de essentia sive de quidditate corporis animati. Et hoc est quod subdit: hoc autem, scilicet substantia quae est secundum rationem, est quod quid erat esse huiusmodi corpori, id est corpori constituto in specie per talem formam; ipsa enim forma pertinet ad essentiam rei, quae significatur per definitionem significantem de re quid est.
236. First, then, he observes that what the soul is has been given in the universal, since the definition above applies to any soul.1 For it posits the soul as the substance that is form, and from this a thing’s account is received.2 However, there is this difference between a form that is substance and a form that is not substance; for an accidental form, which is not in the genus of substance, does not pertain to the essence or “whatness” of its subject (for whiteness is not of the essence of a white body), whereas substantial form is of the essence or “whatness” of its subject. The soul is said to be a substantial form, therefore, because it is of the essence or “whatness” of the ensouled body. Hence, he says, it is the substance (412b9) that is according to account, the what-it-was-to-be for a certain sort of body, that is, a body that is constituted in its species through this sort of form. For the form itself pertains to the essence of the thing, which is signified through a definition stating what a thing is.
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237. Et quia formae substantiales, cuiusmodi sunt formae corporum naturalium, sunt latentes, manifestat hoc per formas artificiales, quae sunt accidentales, et hoc est quod subdit: sicut si aliquid organorum, id est artificialium instrumentorum, ut puta dolabra, esset corpus physicum, id est naturale, forma sua hoc modo se haberet ad ipsum sicut dictum est. Et ideo subdit: erat quidem enim dolabrae esse substantia ipsis, id est: forma dolabrae secundum quam accipitur ratio dolabrae, quam quidem rationem nominat esse dolabrae eo quod secundum eam dolabra dicitur esse dolabra, haec inquam forma esset substantia dolabrae (et hoc ideo dicit quia formae corporum naturalium sunt in genere substantiae)
237. And because substantial forms, including the forms of natural bodies, are hidden, Aristotle manifests this through artificial forms, which are accidental forms. So he adds, if some tool, that is, an artificial instrument, for example, an axe, were a natural body, that is, natural, it would possess a form in the manner explained.1 So he continues: then “being-an-axe” would be its substance, that is, would be the substantial form of the axe, which is that in reference to which the account of axe is given. This account he names the being of the axe, in that in reference to it an axe is said to be an axe; this form, he says, would be the substance of the axe. (He says this because the forms of natural bodies are in the genus of substance.)
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et ulterius, si dolabra non solum esset corpus physicum sed etiam corpus animatum, forma dolabrae esset anima et, ea separata, non esset amplius dolabra nisi aequivoce, sicut, separata anima, non est caro aut oculus nisi aequivoce; nunc autem, quia dolabra non est corpus naturale nec eius forma est quod quid erat esse tali corpori, remota forma dolabrae adhuc est dolabra, id est substantia dolabrae; substantia enim corporum artificialium est materia ipsorum, quae remanet sublata forma artificiali, licet non remaneat ipsum corpus artificiale in actu.
And further, if the axe were not merely a natural body but an ensouled one as well, its form would be a soul; and if it lost this soul, it would no longer be an axe, except equivocally, just as when the soul is separated there is no longer an eye or flesh, except equivocally. But now, because the axe is not a natural body, nor is its form the “what it was to be” for such a body, if it lost the form of axe, it is an axe, that is, the substance of an axe, because the substance of artificial things is their matter, which remains when the artificial form is removed, even though the artificial body itself does not remain in act.
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238. Et quia dixerat quod aliter nunc est in dolabra et aliter esset si esset corpus physicum animatum, assignat rationem huius, dicens quod hoc ideo est quia anima non est quod quid est esse et ratio, id est forma, huiusmodi corporis, scilicet artificialis, sed corporis physici huiuscemodi, scilicet habentis vitam; et ut manifestet quid sit esse physicum corpus, subiungit habentis in se ipso principium motus et status: naturalia enim sunt quae in se ipsis principium motus et status habent; huiusmodi enim principium natura dicitur.
238. Then he explains why he has distinguished between the axe and as it would be if it were an ensouled natural body: for the soul is not the what-it-was-to-be and account, that is, the form, of such a body as this, that is, of an artificial body, but of this sort of natural body, that is, one that has life. To make manifest what a natural body is, he adds, one that has within itself a principle of movement and rest; for natural things are those that have within their very selves the principle of motion and rest; for nature is this sort of principle.1
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239. Deinde cum dicit: considerare autem in partibus etc., manifestat definitionem animae ex partibus, dicens quod id quod dictum est de tota anima et de toto corpore vivente, oportet considerare in partibus utriusque, quia, si oculus esset animal, oporteret quod visus esset anima eius, quia visus est substantialis forma oculi et oculus est materia visus, sicut corpus organicum materia animae, deficiente autem visu, non remanet oculus nisi aequivoce, sicut oculus lapideus aut depictus aequivoce dicitur oculus. Et hoc ideo est quia aequivoca sunt quorum nomen solum commune est et ratio substantiae diversa et ideo, sublata forma a qua est ratio substantiae oculi, non remanet nisi nomen oculi aequivoce dictum.
239. Then, at now, what has been said (412b17), he manifests the definition of the soul from its parts, saying that what was said about the soul as a whole and about the living body as a whole one should consider with respect to its parts. For if the eye were an animal, its soul would be sight, since sight is the substantial form of the eye and the eye is the matter of sight, in the same way as an organized body is the matter of a soul. But apart from sight the eye is no longer an eye, except equivocally, as with a painted or a stone eye, which is called an “eye” equivocally. (This is because equivocals are things whose name alone is common and the account of the substance is diverse.) Remove, then, the form from which arises the account of the eye’s substance; what remains is only the name “eye,” said equivocally.
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Quod igitur invenitur in parte viventis corporis, oportet accipere in toto vivente corpore, scilicet quod, sicut visus est forma substantialis oculi et eo remoto non remanet oculus nisi aequivoce, ita anima est forma substantialis viventis corporis et ea remota non remanet corpus vivum nisi aequivoce; sicut enim se habet una pars animae sensitivae ad unam partem corporis sensitivi, sic se habet totus sensus ad totum corpus sensitivum inquantum huiusmodi.
And what is found in the part of a living body applies to the whole living body, namely, as sight is the substantial form of the eye, and when it is removed, the eye only remains equivocally, so too, the soul is the substantial form of the living body, and when the soul is removed, you have a living body only equivocally. For as one part of the sensitive soul is to one part of the sensitive body, so corresponds the sensitivity as a whole to the whole sensitive body, considered as such.
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240. Deinde cum dicit: est autem non abiciens animam etc., exponit praemissam definitionem de anima quantum ad hoc quod dixerat quod est actus corporis habentis vitam in potentia. Dicitur enim aliquid esse in potentia dupliciter: uno modo cum non habet principium operationis, alio modo cum habet quidem sed non operatur secundum ipsum; corpus autem cuius actus est anima est habens vitam in potentia, non quidem primo modo sed secundo.
240. Next, at now, that which has cast off (412b25), he explains what was meant by defining the soul as the act of a body that has life in potency. For something is said to be “in potency” in two ways: in one way, as not having the principle of activity; in another way, as having this principle, but not acting according to it. However, the body whose act is the soul is one that has life in potency not in fact in the first sense but in the second.
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Et hoc est quod dicit corpus potentia ens ut vivat, id est habens vitam in potentia, cuius est actus anima, non sic dicitur esse in potentia ad vitam quod sit abiiciens animam, id est carens principio vitae quod est anima, sed quod est habens huiusmodi principium. Sed verum est quod semen et fructus, in quo conservatur semen plantae, est in potentia ad huiusmodi corpus vivum quod habet animam: nondum enim semen habet animam, sed est in potentia ad animam; unde sic est in potentia sicut abiiciens animam.
So, when he says that a body is in potency to life, that is, a body whose act is the soul has life in potency, he is not speaking of a body that is in potency to life when it has cast off its soul, that is, one lacking the principle of life that is soul; he is speaking rather of that which has such a principle. On the other hand, a seed and fruit, in which the plant’s seed is preserved, is only potentially such a living body, which has a soul; for a seed does not yet have a soul but is in potency to soul. Therefore, it is in potency the way what has lost its soul is.
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241. Et ut ostendat quomodo est in potentia ad vitam corpus cuius actus est anima, subiungit quod ita vigilantia est actus animae sensitivae sicut incisio est actus cultelli et visio est actus oculi: quodlibet enim istorum est operatio et usus principii habiti; sed anima est actus primus sicut visus et quaecumque potentia organi: quodlibet enim horum est principium operationis; sed corpus quod est perfectum per animam est potentia habens quidem actum primum, sed aliquando carens actu secundo. Sed, sicut oculus est aliquid compositum ex pupilla sicut materia et visu sicut forma, ita animal est compositum ex anima sicut forma et ex corpore sicut materia.
241. And to show just how the body whose act is the soul is in potency to life, he adds that being awake is the act of the sensitive soul in the same way as cutting is the act of a knife and seeing is the act of an eye; for each of these acts is the activity and use of a possessed principle. But the soul is the first act just as sight and any power of an organ; for each of these is the principle of the activity. But the body that has been completed by soul has first act in potency, but sometimes it lacks the second act. But as the eye is a thing composed of a pupil as its matter and sight as its form, so an animal is a thing composed of soul as its form and body as its matter.
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242. Deinde cum dicit: quod quidem igitur non sit anima separabilis etc., concludit quamdam veritatem ex praemissis. Quia enim ostensum est quod anima est actus totius corporis et partes sunt actus partium, actus autem et forma non separantur ab eo cuius est actus vel forma, manifestum est quod anima non potest separari a corpore vel ipsa tota vel aliquae partes eius, si nata est aliquo modo habere partes: manifestum est enim quod aliquae partes animae sunt actus aliquarum partium corporis, sicut dictum est quod visus est actus oculi. Sed secundum quasdam partes nihil prohibet animam separari, quia quaedam partes animae nullius corporis actus sunt, sicut infra probabitur de his quae sunt circa intellectum.
242. Then, at therefore it is evident (413a4), he deduces a truth from the foregoing. Having shown that the soul is the whole body’s act, and its parts the acts of the body’s parts, and granted that acts and forms are not separated from that of which they are the acts or forms, it is manifest that the soul cannot be separated from the body—either the whole soul or certain parts of it, if the soul is naturally apt to have parts in some way. For obviously some parts of the soul are acts of certain parts of the body, as we have seen that sight is the eye’s act.1 On the other hand, as regards certain parts of the soul, there is nothing to prevent them from being separated, since certain parts of the soul are not the acts of any body, as will be proved when we come to treat of the intellect.2
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243. Et, quia Plato ponebat quod anima est actus corporis non sicut forma sed sicut motor, subiungit quod hoc nondum est manifestum si anima sic sit actus corporis sicut nauta est actus navis, scilicet ut motor tantum.
243. And because of Plato’s opinion that the soul is the act of the body not as its form but as its mover, he adds that it is not yet clear whether the soul is the act of the body as a sailor is that of a ship, that is, as its mover only.
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244. Deinde epilogando colligit quae dicta sunt et dicit quod secundum praedicta determinatum est de anima et posita est animae descriptio figuraliter, quasi extrinsece et superficialiter et incomplete. Complebitur enim determinatio de anima quando pertinget usque ad intima ut determinetur natura uniuscuiusque partis ipsius animae.
244. Finally, he gathers together the things that have been said and says that the foregoing is an outline (413a9) description of the soul, meaning that it is extrinsic, as it were, and superficial and incomplete. For the determination will be completed when he reaches all the way to the determination of the innermost nature of each part of the soul.
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L. 3 (B.2, 413a11–413b13)The definition justified and the modes of living
Ponit duplicem demonstrandi modum: unum a priori, alterum a posteriori; quo concludit animam esse primum vivendi principium in tribus viventium generibus essentialiter ordinatis
The definition justified and the modes of living
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Quoniam autem ex incertis quidem certius autem fit quod certum et secundum rationem notius, temptandum iterum est sic aggredi de ipsa.
Since it is from things uncertain (though more certain [to us]) that what is certain and more known according to account arises, in this way we must try to approach the matter afresh.
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Non enim solum quod quia oportet diffinitivam rationem ostendere, sicut plures terminorum dicunt, sed et causam inesse et demonstrare. Nunc autem sicut conclusiones rationes terminorum sunt; ut quid est tetragonismus equale altera parte longiori? Orthogonium esse equilaterale; talis autem terminus ratio conclusionis. Dicens autem quoniam tetragonismus est mediae inventio, rei causam dicit.
For not only should a defining account say the fact, as do most determinations, but it should also contain and demonstrate the cause. At present the accounts of the determinations are like conclusions: for instance, what is the square equal to a rectangle? The equilateral rectangle. Such a determination has the account of a conclusion. But to say that the square is the discovery of the mean line states the thing’s cause.
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Dicamus igitur principium accipientes intentionis determinari animatum ab inanimato in vivendo.
Going back, then, to the beginning of our inquiry, let us say that the ensouled is distinguished from the non-souled by being alive.
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Multipliciter autem ipso vivere dicto, et si unum aliquod horum insit solum, vivere ipsum dicimus, ut intellectus et sensus, motus et status secundum locum, adhuc autem motus secundum alimentum et decrementum et augmentum.
To live, however, is predicated in several ways; and we say there is life even if only one of these is present, as, for example, understanding, sensation, or movement and rest in place, as well as the movement and rest involved in nourishment and growth and decrease.
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Unde et vegetabilia omnia videntur vivere: videntur enim in se ipsis habentia potentiam et principium huiusmodi, per quod augmentum et decrementum suscipiunt secundum contrarias locos. Non enim sursum quidem augentur, deorsum autem non, sed similiter in utroque. Et penitus quaecumque aluntur, et vivunt in finem quousque possunt accipere alimentum.
Hence all plants are also seen to live. For they appear to have in themselves a power and principle of this kind, by which they admit of increase or decrease in various directions—For they do not only grow up or down, but likewise grow in both directions. And in all their parts they are continually nourished, and they live so long as they can take in nourishment.
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Separari autem hoc ab aliis possibile est, alia autem ab hoc impossibile est in mortalibus. Manifestum est autem in his quae vegetantur: neque enim una inest ipsis potentia alia animae. Vivere quidem igitur propter hoc principium inest omnibus viventibus.
It is possible for this power to be separate from the others, whereas for the others to be separate from it is impossible, at least in mortal beings. This is evident in plants, for there is in them no other power of the soul. To live by this principle, then, is common to all living things.
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Animal autem propter sensum primum. Et namque quae non moventur neque mutantia locum, habentia autem sensum, animalia dicimus, et non vivere solum.
But an animal is such primarily by sensation. For we also call “animals” things that do not move or change their place, provided they have sensation and do not merely live.
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Videntur autem et huiusmodi multa esse animalium: manentia autem cum sint natura, habent solum sensum.
There seem to be many animals of this sort: by nature they stay in one place, but they have only sensation.
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Sensuum autem primo inest omnibus tactus. Sicut autem vegetativum potest separari a tactu et omni sensu, sic et tactus ab aliis sensibus. Vegetativum autem dicimus huiusmodi partem animae qua et vegetabilia participant. Animalia autem omnia videntur tangendi sensum habentia.
But in all of them, the first of the senses is touch. Just as the vegetative can be separated from touch and all the senses, so can touch from the other senses. We give the name “vegetative,” however, to that part of the soul in which vegetables also participate. But all animals are seen to possess the sense of touch.
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Propter quam autem causam utrumque horum accidit, posterius dicemus. Nunc autem in tantum dictum sit solum quod est anima horum quae dicta sunt principium et his determinata est, vegetativo, sensitivo, intellectivo, motu.
Due to what cause each of these facts is so we shall say later on. At present, only this need be said: that soul is the principle of things we have discussed and is determined by them, that is, by the vegetative, sensitive, intellectual, and motive powers.
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245. Quoniam autem ex incertis etc. Postquam philosophus posuit definitionem animae, hic intendit demonstrare ipsam.
245. Since it is from things uncertain (413a11). Having presented the definition of the soul, the Philosopher now sets out to demonstrate it.
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Et primo dicit de quo est intentio;
First, he says what he intends to do;
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secundo prosequitur, ibi: dicamus igitur principium etc.
and second, at going back, then (413a20; [253]), he proceeds to do it.
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Circa primum duo facit:
About the first, he does two things:
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primo determinat modum demonstrationis quo uti intendit in demonstrando;
first, he determines the method of demonstration that he intends to use;
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secundo manifestat quomodo quaedam definitiones sunt demonstrabiles, ibi: non enim solum quodque etc.
second, at for not only should (413a13; [247]), he explains how certain types of definition can be demonstrated.
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Circa primum sciendum est quod, cum ex notis oporteat in cognitionem ignotorum devenire, omnis autem demonstratio adducitur causa notificandi aliquid, necesse est quod omnis demonstratio procedat ex notioribus quoad nos, quibus per demonstrationem fit aliquid notum.
With regard to the first, we should note that, since we can only come to know the unknown if we start from what we know, and since the purpose of demonstration is precisely to cause knowledge, it follows that every demonstration must begin from something more knowable to us than the thing the demonstration makes known.
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In quibusdam autem eadem sunt notiora quoad nos et secundum naturam, sicut in mathematicis, quae sunt a materia abstracta; et in his demonstratio procedit ex notioribus simpliciter et notioribus secundum naturam, scilicet ex causis in effectus; unde et dicitur demonstratio propter quid.
Now, in some subjects the things more known to us are also such according to their nature, as with mathematical objects, which have been abstracted from matter; and in these things, demonstration can proceed from things simply speaking more known and more known according to their nature, that is, it can proceed from causes to effects; whence also this demonstration is called “that on account of which.”
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In quibusdam vero non sunt eadem magis nota simpliciter et quoad nos, scilicet in naturalibus, in quibus plerumque effectus sensibiles sunt magis noti suis causis; et ideo in naturalibus ut in pluribus proceditur ab his quae sunt minus nota secundum naturam, magis autem nota quoad nos, ut dicitur in I Physicorum.
But in some other things what is more known simply speaking is not the same thing as the more known to us, as happens with natural objects; for sensible effects are usually more known than their causes. Hence, in the natural sciences we for the most part have to begin from things less known according to their nature but more known to us, as is said in Physics 1.1
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246. Et hoc modo demonstrationis intendit hic uti. Et hoc est quod dicit quod, quia illud quod est certum secundum naturam et quod est secundum rationem notius fit certius quoad nos ex his quae sunt incerta secundum naturam, certiora autem quoad nos, per istum modum tentandum est iterum aggredi de anima, demonstrando definitionem eius supra positam.
246. And this is the kind of demonstration which will be used here. So he says that what is according to its nature certain and more known according to its account (413a11) becomes more certain to us by means of things uncertain according to their nature but more certain to us; and that this shows us the method whereby one must try to approach the soul afresh by demonstrating the definition given above.1
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247. Deinde cum dicit: non enim solum etc., assignat rationem praedictae intentionis, ostendendo quod aliquae definitiones sunt demonstrabiles. Et hoc est quod dicit quod ideo oportet iterum aggredi de anima, quia oportet quod ratio definitiva non solum dicat hoc quod est quia, sicut plures terminorum, id est definitionum, dicunt, sed oportet etiam quod in definitione tangatur causa et quod per definitionem dicentem propter quid, demonstretur definitio quae dicit solum quia.
247. Then, at for not only should (413a13), he tells us why the question must be taken up again by showing that certain definitions can be demonstrated. And this is why he says that we should approach the soul afresh, because it is not enough for the defining account to say, as most determinations (that is, definitions) do, the fact; it should also touch on the cause of the fact; with the definition saying the “that on account of which,” one can then demonstrate the definition that states the mere fact.
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Inveniuntur autem nunc multae rationes terminorum, id est definitiones, quae sunt sicut conclusiones; et ponit exemplum in geometricalibus.
At present there are found many accounts of determinations (that is, definitions) that are like conclusions; and he gives an example from geometry.
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248. Ad cuius intelligentiam sciendum est quod figurarum quadrilaterarum quaedam habent omnes angulos rectos et vocantur orthogonia, id est superficies rectorum angulorum; quaedam autem non habent angulos rectos et vocantur rhombi vel rhomboides.
248. To understand which, we must note that there are two kinds of four-sided figure: those whose angles are all right angles, and these are called “rectangles,” that is, an area of right angles; and those with no right angles, and these are called “rhombuses” or “rhomboids.”
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Sciendum est autem quod orthogoniorum quoddam consistit ex omnibus lateribus aequalibus et vocatur quadratum sive tetragonismus; quoddam autem non habet omnia latera aequalia, in quo tamen quaelibet duo latera sibi opposita sunt aequalia, et vocatur huiusmodi orthogonium altera parte longius.
Note, however, that of the rectangles there is one with four equal sides—called the “square” or “tetragon”; and another which, without having all four sides equal, has two pairs of equal and opposite sides—and this rectangle is called the “oblong,” where it is longer in one direction than in the other. Thus:
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249. Item sciendum est quod in qualibet superficie rectorum angulorum duae rectae lineae quae angulum rectum concludunt dicuntur totam superficiem continere, quia, cum alia duo latera sint aequalia eis, unumquodque suo opposito, necesse est quod una praedictarum linearum rectum angulum concludentium mensuret longitudinem superficiei rectangulae et alia latitudinem; unde tota superficies rectangula consurgit ex ductu unius earum in aliam, ut, si imaginaremur quod una earum moveretur per aliam, consurgeret talis superficies.
249. Note further, that in any rectangular area, the two straight lines enclosing the right angle are said to contain the whole area, because, the other two sides being equal to these two, each equal to its opposite, it follows that one of the enclosing lines measures the length of the whole area, and the other its breadth, so that the whole rectangular area arises from leading one line against the other. For example, if we imagine one of these lines moving along the other, we see the whole area come forth.
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250. Item, sciendum est quod, cum in orthogonio quod est altera parte longius duae lineae continentes ipsum sint inaequales, si accipiatur inter eas linea media in proportione et ducatur in se ipsam, fiet quadratum aequale altera parte longiori. Et quia hoc demonstrationibus geometricis ostendere diffusum esset, sufficiat hoc ad praesens manifestare in numeris:
250. Note also that since, in an oblong rectangle, the two sides that contain it are unequal, if one takes the proportional mean between them, and leads it against itself, one gets a square equal to the oblong rectangle. And because showing this by the geometrical demonstrations would be diffuse, let the following manifestation in numbers be enough for the present.
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sit igitur orthogonium altera parte longius cuius maius latus sit novem palmorum, minus vero quatuor; accipiatur autem linea media in proportione inter ea, quae scilicet sit sex palmorum; quadratum huius lineae erit aequale praedicto altera parte longiori; quod etiam in numeris patet: nam quater novem sunt triginta sex, similiter etiam sexies sex sunt triginta sex.
Let our oblong rectangle, then, have its longer side nine spans and its shorter side four spans. Then let us take the proportional mean between them, six spans.1 Now the square of this line must equal the aforesaid oblong rectangle, which is also clear in the numbers: for four times nine are thirty-six, and likewise, six times six are thirty-six.
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251. Hoc est ergo quod dicit quod, si quaeratur quid est tetragonismus, id est quadratum, aequale altera parte longiori, assignabitur talis definitio ut dicatur esse orthogonium, id est superficies rectorum angulorum, aequilaterale, id est habens omnia latera aequalia; talis autem terminus, id est talis definitio, est ratio conclusionis, id est per demonstrationem conclusa. Si autem aliquis sic definiat dicens quod quadratum est inventio mediae, scilicet lineae mediae in proportione inter duo latera inaequalia altera parte longioris, id est orthogonium constitutum ex tali linea inventa, qui inquam, sic definit, dicit causam rei.
251. This is why he says that the question, what is the square equal to an oblong rectangle? is given this definition: a rectangle, that is, a surface composed of right angles, that is equilateral, that is, has all its sides equal. Such a determination, that is, such a definition, has the account of a conclusion, that is, of a presupposed demonstration. But if one were to define it saying that the square is the discovery of a mean line, that is, of the proportional mean between the two unequal sides of the oblong, that is, the square is the rectangle constructed from this discovered line, then this definition says, that is, defines, the thing’s cause.
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252. Attendendum est autem quod hoc exemplum quod hic inducitur est simile ei quod intendit circa animam quantum ad aliquid, scilicet quantum ad hoc quod demonstretur definitio animae, non autem quantum ad hoc quod demonstretur demonstratione dicente propter quid.
252. Note, however, that this example is only relevant to the definition of the soul in a certain respect, that is, insofar as the definition of the soul is to be demonstrated; it must not be taken to imply that it can be demonstrated by a demonstration that states the “that on account of which.”
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253. Deinde cum dicit: dicamus igitur etc., incipit demonstrare definitionem animae superius positam modo praedicto, scilicet per effectum. Et utitur tali demonstratione: illud quod est primum principium vivendi est viventium corporum actus et forma; sed anima est primum principium vivendi his quae vivunt; ergo est corporis viventis actus et forma; manifestum est autem quod haec demonstratio est ex posteriori: ex eo enim quod anima est forma corporis viventis, est principium operum vitae, et non e converso. Circa hoc ergo duo facit:
253. Next, at going back then (413a20), he begins to demonstrate the definition of the soul given above, and this in the way indicated, that is, through its effect.1 He uses the following demonstration: the first principle of living is the act and form of living bodies; but soul is the first principle of living in living things; therefore, the soul is the act and form of a living body. Now, this demonstration is clearly from what is posterior; for the soul is the principle of the activities of life because the soul is the form of a living body, and not the reverse. He therefore has to do two things here:
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primo ostendit quod anima est principium vivendi;
first, to show that soul is the principle of living;
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secundo quod primum principium vivendi est forma corporis viventis, ibi: quoniam autem quo vivimus et sentimus etc.
and second, to show that the first principle of living is the form of the living body; this comes at since we can (414a4; [271]).
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Circa primum tria facit:
With regard to the first point, he does three things:
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primo distinguit modos viventium;
first, he distinguishes modes of life;
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secundo ostendit quod anima est vivendi principium, ibi: unde et vegetabilia omnia etc;
second, he shows that the soul is the principle of living—at hence all plants (413a25; [256]);
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tertio manifestat quomodo se habeant partes animae ad invicem secundum quas est principium operum vitae, ibi: utrum autem unumquodque horum etc.
third, he explains how the parts of the soul, by means of which it is the principle of the activities of life, are related. This is at we now ask whether each of these (413b13; [262]).
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254. Dicit ergo primo quod ad prosequendum nostram intentionem qua intendimus demonstrare definitionem animae, oportet hoc quasi principium accipere quod animatum distinguitur ab inanimato in vivendo: animata enim vivunt, sed inanimata non vivunt. Sed, cum multiplex sit modus vivendi, si unus tantum eorum insit alicui, dicetur illud vivens et animatum;
254. He starts, then, by first saying that to carry out our intention of demonstrating the definition of the soul, we must take as a sort of principle that things with souls differ from the non-souled by being alive (413a20). For ensouled things live, but things without souls do not live. But as there are several ways of living, if a thing has life in only one of these ways, it is still said to be alive and to possess a soul.
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255. ponit autem quatuor modos vivendi, quorum unus est per intellectum, secundus per sensum, tertius per motum et statum localem, quartus per motum alimenti, et decrementi et augmenti.
255. Living, he says, shows itself in four modes: first, through understanding; second, through sensation; third, through local motion and rest; fourth, through the motions of taking nourishment, and decrease and growth.
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Ideo autem quatuor tantum modos ponit vivendi, cum supra quinque genera operationum animae posuerit, quia hic intendit distinguere modos vivendi secundum gradus viventium, qui distinguuntur secundum haec quatuor: in quibusdam enim viventium inveniuntur tantum alimentum, augmentum et decrementum, scilicet in plantis; in quibusdam autem cum his invenitur sensus sine motu locali, sicut in animalibus imperfectis sicut sunt ostreae; in quibusdam autem ulterius invenitur motus secundum locum, sicut in animalibus perfectis quae moventur motu progressivo, ut bos et equus; in quibusdam vero cum his ulterius invenitur intellectus, scilicet in hominibus. Appetitivum autem, quod est quintum praeter haec quatuor, non facit aliquam diversitatem in gradibus viventium: nam ubicumque est sensus, ibi est et appetitus.
Now, he distinguishes only these four modes of living even though he has already distinguished five kinds of the soul’s activities; this is because he wants to distinguish the modes of living according to the degrees of living things, which are distinguished according to these four.1 For in some of the things that are alive, like plants, one finds only self-nourishment and growth and decrease; but some have also sensation without local motion—such are the incomplete animals, like shellfish; some again are found also to have local motion, like in the complete animals, like oxen and horses, which move themselves about; and some are also found to have understanding, that is, human beings. However, the appetitive activity, which makes a fifth, does not make a difference in the degrees of living things, for wherever there is sensation, there is also appetite.
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256. Deinde cum dicit: unde et vegetabilia etc. manifestat quod anima est principium vivendi secundum omnes modos praedictos. Et circa hoc tria facit:
256. Next, at hence all plants (413a25), he shows that a soul is involved in all these modes of living. Concerning this he does three things.
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primo ostendit quomodo anima est vivendi principium in plantis;
First, he shows how the soul is the principle of living in plants;
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secundo in animalibus, ibi: animal autem propter sensum etc.;
second, in animals, at but an animal is such primarily (413b2; [259]);
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tertio ostendit quid dictum sit et quid restat dicendum, ibi: propter quam autem causam etc.
third, he summarizes, at due to what cause (413b9; [261], what has been said and what remains to be said.
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Circa primum duo facit.
As to the first, he does two things.
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Primo ostendit quod anima est principium vivendi in plantis et dicit quod, cum dictum sit quod, quibuscumque inest unum quatuor praedictorum, quod dicuntur vivere, sequitur quod omnia vegetabilia vivant: omnia enim habent in se ipsis potentiam quamdam et principium quo suscipiunt motum augmenti et decrementi.
First, he shows that the principle of living in plants is a soul. And he says that, since it has been said that whatever has one of the four modes of living mentioned above can be said to live, it follows that all plants are alive; for they all possess within themselves some intrinsic power and principle whereby they admit of the motion of growth and decrease.
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257. Et quod hoc principium non sit natura sed anima, manifestum est: nam natura non movet ad contraria loca, motus autem augmenti et decrementi est secundum contraria loca; augentur enim vegetabilia omnia non solum sursum neque deorsum, sed utroque modo, manifestum est quod principium horum motuum non est natura sed anima. Nec solum vegetabilia vivunt dum augentur et decrescunt, sed quaecumque nutriuntur tamdiu vivunt quamdiu possunt accipere nutrimentum per quod fit augmentum.
257. Now, it is clear that this principle is not nature but rather soul, because nature does not move in contrary directions, whereas growth and decrease are in contrary directions. For all plants grow not only upwards or downwards, but in both directions. Hence a soul, not nature, is clearly the principle of their motion. Nor do plants live only when actually growing or decaying, but, in all their parts (413a25) that take nourishment, they live so long as they can take the nourishment that induces growth.
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258. Secundo ibi: separari autem etc., ostendit quod praedictum vivendi principium est primum et separabile ab aliis. Et dicit quod hoc, scilicet principium augmenti et alimenti, potest separari ab aliis principiis vivendi, sed alia non possunt separari ab eo in rebus mortalibus (quod ideo addit quia in rebus immortalibus sicut sunt substantiae separatae et corpora caelestia, si tamen sunt animata, invenitur intellectivum sine nutritivo).
258. Second, at it is possible (413a31), he shows that this principle of living is first and can be separate from the others. And he says that this, namely, the principle of nutrition and growth, can be separate from the other principles of living, but the others cannot be separated from it, at least in mortal beings. He adds this last clause because of immortal beings, like separated substances or heavenly bodies; yet if these are ensouled, the intellectual power is found there without the nutritive.
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Quod autem hoc principium sit separabile ab aliis, manifestum est in his quae vegetantur, id est in plantis, in quibus nulla alia potentia animae inest nisi huiusmodi. Ex quo manifestum est quod illud propter quod primum invenitur vita in rebus mortalibus est principium augmenti et alimenti, quod vocatur anima vegetabilis.
And the separability of this life principle from others is evident in plants, in which there is no other power of the soul except this. It follows that that due to which life is first found in mortal things is this principle of growth and nourishment, which is called the “vegetative soul.”
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259. Deinde cum dicit: animal autem propter sensum primum etc., manifestat quomodo anima est principium vivendi in animalibus. Et circa hoc duo facit.
259. Then, at but an animal is such primarily (413b2), he manifests how a soul is the principle of living in animals. And here he does two things.
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Primo dicit quod primum dicitur aliquid esse animal propter sensum, licet animalia quaedam et sentiant et moveantur. Ea enim dicimus esse animalia, et non solum vivere, quae, licet non mutent locum, tamen habent sensum. Sunt enim multa animalium talia, quae naturaliter manent in eodem loco et tamen habent sensum, sicut ostreae quae non moventur motu progressivo.
First, he observes that what primarily distinguishes animals is sensation, though there are some animals that both sense and move; for we say those things are animals (not just living things) even if they do not change place, as long as they have sensation. For there are many such animals whose nature restricts them to one place, but which have the power of sense, for example, shellfish, which cannot move from place to place.
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260. Secundo ibi: sensuum autem primo etc., ostendit quod inter alios sensus primo inest tactus animalibus. Quod probat ex hoc quod, sicut vegetativum potest separari a tactu et ab omni sensu, sic tactus potest separari ab aliis sensibus: multa enim sunt animalia quae solum sensum tactus habent, sicut animalia imperfecta, omnia autem animalia habent sensum tactus. Vegetativum autem principium dicimus illam partem animae qua etiam vegetabilia, id est plantae, participant.
260. Then, at but in all of them (413b4), he shows that touch is the primary sense present in animals. He proves this from the fact that just as the vegetative can be separated from touch and all the senses, so touch is separable from the other senses. For there are many animals that have only the sense of touch, like the incomplete animals, whereas all animals have the sense of touch. That part of the soul in which vegetables, that is, plants, also participate we call the “vegetative.”
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Sic igitur ex praedictis patent tres gradus viventium: primus est plantarum; secundus animalium imperfectorum immobilium quae habent solum sensum tactus; tertius est animalium perfectorum quae moventur motu progressivo, quae etiam habent alios sensus; manifestum est autem quod quartus gradus est eorum quae habent cum his etiam intellectum.
Hence we can distinguish three degrees of living things: first, that of plants; second, that of the incomplete animals fixed to one place, possessing only the sense of touch; and, third, that of complete animals that move themselves about and which also have the other senses. And a fourth degree consists, evidently, of things that have all this and intellect as well.
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261. Deinde cum dicit: propter quam autem causam etc., ostendit quid dictum sit et quid restat dicendum. Et dicit quod posterius dicendum est propter quam causam utrumque horum accidat, scilicet quod vegetativum est sine sensu et quod tactus sine aliis sensibus: hoc enim dicet in fine libri.
261. Finally, at due to what cause (413b9), summarizing what has been said and remains to be said, he remarks that due to what cause each of these facts, namely the separability of the vegetative principle from sensation, and of touch from the other senses, will be given later on. He does this at the end of the whole treatise.1
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Nunc autem sufficiet in tantum dictum esse quod anima est principium vivendi secundum modos praedictos et quod distincta est istis quatuor, scilicet vegetativo, quod est in plantis et in omnibus viventibus, sensitivo, quod est in omnibus animalibus, intellectivo, quod est in omnibus hominibus, motu progressivo, qui est in omnibus animalibus perfectis, a sensu vel intellectu.
At present it suffices to say that the soul is the principle of living according to the aforementioned modes, and which is divided into four, namely, the vegetative mode, which belongs to plants and to all living things; the sensitive mode, which is in all animals; the intellectual mode, in all human beings; and the progressively motive mode, which exists in all the animals completed by the senses or intellect.
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L. 4 (B.2, 413b13–414a28)Different kinds of soul
Quo pacto distinguantur potentiae ab ipsa anima et abinvicem in rebus animatis: ex hoc deducens animam esse id, quo primo vivimus, sentimus, movemur et intelligimus
Different kinds of soul
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Utrum autem unumquodque horum est anima aut pars animae, et si pars, utrum sic ut sit separabilis ratione solum aut et loco?
We now ask whether each of these powers is a soul or a part of a soul: and if a part, whether it is separable only in account or has also a distinct place.
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De quibusdam quidem horum non est difficile videre, quaedam autem dubitationem habent. Sicut enim in plantis quaedam divisa videntur viventia et separata ab invicem, tanquam existente in his anima actu quidem una in unaquaque planta, potentia autem pluribus, sic videmus et circa alias differentias animae accidere, ut in entomis decisis: et enim sensum utraque partium habet et motum secundum locum. Si autem sensum, et phantasiam et appetitum; ubi quidem enim sensus est, et tristitia et laetitia est, ubi autem haec sunt, ex necessitate et desiderium est.
Concerning some of these powers it is not difficult to see the answers to our questions; others, however, give rise to doubts. For, as in the case of plants, some, on being divided, seem to go on living in separation from one another, as if there were in each plant one soul in act, but several in potency; so we find it happens in the case of other differentiations of soul, for instance, in segmented animals when cut up, each division has sensation and local motion; and if sensation, also imagination and appetite, for where there is sensation, there is sorrow and joy, and where these are, there must necessarily be desire.
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De intellectu autem et perspectiva potentia, nihil adhuc manifestum est, sed videtur genus alterum animae esse et hoc solum contingere separari sicut perpetuum a corruptibili. Relique autem partes animae, manifestum ex his quod non separabiles sint, sicut quidam dicunt.
But as regards the intellect and the theoretical power, nothing is yet manifest; but it seems to be a different kind of soul, and alone seems capable of being separated, as the eternal from the perishable. It is evident, however, from the foregoing that the other parts of the soul are not separable, as some have said.
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Ratione autem quod altere, manifestum: sensitivo enim esse et opinativo, alterum, si quidem et sentire ab ipso opinari; similiter autem et aliorum unumquodque quae dicta sunt.
In account, however, they are obviously distinct. For if sensing is also different than forming an opinion, being for the sensitive power is different from being for the opining power. Likewise with each of the other powers mentioned.
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Quod autem quibusdam animalium insunt omnia haec, quibusdam vero quaedam horum, alteris autem unum solum, hoc facit differentiam animalium. Propter quam autem causam sit factum, posterius intendendum est. Similiter autem et circa sensus accidit: alia quidem enim habent omnes, alia vero quosdam, quaedam autem unum maxime necessarium, tactum.
Further, all these powers are in some animals; in others, some only; in yet others, only one. This makes the varieties of animal. The cause for this being so will be considered later. The same obtains even with regard to the senses: certain species of animal have all; certain others, some; yet others have only the one most necessary, touch.
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Quoniam autem quo vivimus et sentimus dupliciter dicitur, sicut quo scimus (dicimus autem hoc quidem scientiam, illud autem animam, utroque enim horum dicimus scire), similiter autem et quo sanamur, aliud quidem sanitas est, aliud autem parte quadam corporis aut et toto,
Since we can speak of that whereby we live and sense in two ways—like “that by which we know,” for we name one thing knowledge and another the soul, though we are said to know by both of these; and likewise as “that by which we are healthy,” for health is one thing, while a part of the body (or the whole of it) is another;
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horum autem scientiaque et sanitas forma est et species quaedam et ratio ut actus susceptivorum, haec quidem scientifici, illa vero sanabilis (videtur enim in patiente et disposito activorum inesse actus), anima autem hoc quo vivimus et sentimus et movemur et intelligimus primum, quare ratio quaedam utique erit et species, sed non ut materia et ut subiectum.
and in these cases, knowledge, or health, is the form and certain species and account as the act of something that receives it, the one what is able to know, the other what is able to be healthy (for the acts of agents seem to be in the thing acted upon and disposed)—and soul being that by which primarily we live and sense and move and understand, it follows that the soul will be a certain account and species; but not as the matter and subject.
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Tripliciter enim dicta substantia, sicut diximus, quarum hoc quidem species, illud vero materia, aliud autem ex utrisque, horum autem materia quidem potentia, species autem actus, postea ex utrisque animatum, non corpus est actus animae, sed ipsa corporis cuiusdam.
For substance is spoken of in three ways, as we have said: in one way as the species; in another as the matter; and in another as what is from both. Of these, however, matter is in potency, the species is act, and what results from both is the ensouled being; the body is not the act of the soul, but the soul is the act of a certain body.
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Et propter hoc bene opinantur quibus videtur neque sine corpore esse neque corpus aliquod anima: corpus quidem enim non est, corporis autem aliquid est.
And on this account, they thought well who held that the soul is neither apart from the body nor the same as the body; for it is not, indeed, the body, yet it is something of the body.
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Et propter hoc in corpore est, et corpore huiusmodi, et non sicut priores ad corpus aptabant ipsam, nihil diffinientes in quo et quali. Et vere, cum non videatur accipere quodlibet contingens. Sic autem fit et secundum rationem: uniuscuiusque enim actus in potentia existente et in propria materia aptus natus est fieri. Quod quidem igitur actus est quidam et ratio potentiam habentis esse huiusmodi, manifestum ex his.
And therefore, it is in a body and a body of a certain sort, and not as some earlier thinkers made out, who related it to a body without defining at all in which one and of what sort. And truly, it does not seem that just anything can receive anything. And that such is the case is confirmed by reason: for an act is of that which is in potency to it, and it is naturally apt to occur in its proper matter. That the soul, then, is a certain act and account of a thing that has the potency to exist in this way is evident from these considerations.
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262. Utrum autem unumquodque eorum etc. Ostendit superius philosophus quod anima est principium vivendi secundum diversa genera vitae et ideo nunc inquirit qualiter principia vivendi secundum diversa genera vitae se habent ad animam et adinvicem. Et circa hoc duo facit.
262. We now ask whether each of these (413b13). After showing that the soul is the one principle of living common to the several genera of life, the Philosopher now inquires into the various principles of the diverse genera, asking how they are related both to the soul and to each other.1 And he does two things here.
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Primo movet quaestiones duas.
First, he puts two questions.
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Quarum prima est: cum anima, quae est vivendi principium, sit determinata vegetativo, sensitivo, motivo et intellectivo, utrum quodlibet eorum sit anima per se aut sit pars animae; et manifestum est quod in his quae tantum augentur et nutriuntur, sicut in plantis, vegetativum est anima, in his autem quae vegetantur et sentiunt, est pars animae, et similiter est de aliis.
The first is this. Since the soul, the principle of living, is determined by the vegetative, sensitive, locomotive, and intellectual powers, is each of these soul by itself, or is each a part of the soul? And obviously where things only grow and take nourishment, as in plants, the vegetative part is the soul. But in things that vegetate and also sense, the vegetative is only a part of the soul. And the same reasoning applies to other cases.
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Secunda quaestio est: si unumquodque praedictorum est pars animae, puta cum omnia inveniantur in una anima, sicut in humana, utrum hoc modo sint partes quod separentur ad invicem solum secundum rationem, ut scilicet sint diversae potentiae, aut etiam separentur loco, utpote quod in una parte corporis sit sensitivum, in alia appetitivum, in alia motivum et sic de aliis, sicut quibusdam visum fuit.
The second question is this. If each of these is a part of the soul, as in the human soul, which contains all of them, are they parts in the sense that they are separated from each other only in account, that is, such that they are diverse parts, or are they also separated in place, inasmuch as the sense-power is in one part of the body, appetite in another, locomotion in another, and so on, as some indeed have thought?
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263. Secundo cum dicit: de quibusdam quidem horum etc., solvit propositas quaestiones.
263. Second, when he says, concerning some of these (413b15), he answers the above questions.
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Et primo secundam;
First, he answers the second question;
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secundo primam, ibi: quod autem quibusdam animalium etc.
and second, at further, all these powers (413b32; [270]), he answers the first.
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Circa primum duo facit:
The second question is answered in two parts:
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primo solvit secundam quaestionem quantum ad secundam partem, ostendens utrum partes animae sint separabiles loco;
first, he shows whether the parts of the soul are separable according to place;
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secundo quantum ad primam, utrum scilicet sint separabiles ratione, ibi: ratione autem, quod alterae etc.
second, at in account (413b29; [269]), he shows whether they are separable in account.
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Dicit ergo primo quod de quibusdam partibus animae non est difficile videre utrum sint separabiles loco, id est subiecto, sed de quibusdam dubium est.
First, he says that it is not difficult to see how some parts of the soul would be separable in place, that is, separable in subject, but there is doubt about other parts.
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264. Et ad ostendendum quod in quibusdam hoc facile est videre, praemittit similitudinem de plantis, quod quaedam partes divisae ab eis et separatae ab aliis partibus videntur vivere (et hoc manifestatur per hoc quod ramusculi abscissi inseruntur vel plantantur et convalescunt, quod non esset nisi remaneret in eis vita et per consequens anima quae est principium vivendi), quod contingit tamquam in unaquaque planta anima sit una in actu et multiplex in potentia.
264. And he illustrates with an example in which it is easy to see this, with a comparison with plants (413b15). Certain parts, he says, of plants can be cut off and yet seem to go on living (and this is shown by the fact that the cuttings, grafted or replanted, become healthy, which would only have happened if the life in them had remained, and consequently, if the soul that is the principle of living had remained). In these cases, the soul appears to be one in act but many in potency, although one in each plant.
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Sic enim videmus accidere in formis corporum naturalium inanimatorum, quae propter sui imperfectionem non requirunt diversitatem in partibus, quod in aliquo uno toto forma est in actu una et plures in potentia, sicut et ipsum corpus est unum in actu et plura in potentia: potest enim dividi unumquodque eorum in diversas partes similes specie, sicut patet in aere, aqua et in corporibus mineralibus, unde oportet, si partes sunt similes specie ad invicem et toti, quod forma specifica post divisionem sit in utraque partium. Et eadem ratione, quia anima plantae imperfecta est in ordine animarum, non requirit magnam diversitatem in partibus, unde anima totius potest salvari in aliqua partium.
The same sort of thing is observable in the forms of non-souled natural bodies, which because of their imperfection do not require diversity in parts; for in any one whole form, it is one in act and many in potency, as also each such body is one in act and many in potency. For these bodies can be divided into parts that are alike in species (for example, air, water, minerals), and hence, if the parts are alike in species both to each other and to the whole, after division there must be the same specific form in each of the parts. And by the same reasoning, the soul of a plant, because it is imperfect in the order of ensouled beings, requires very little differentiation in its parts, so the soul of the whole plant survives in some of its parts.
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265. Et sic etiam videmus in aliis differentiis animae, sicut in entomis decisis, id est in animalibus quae decisa vivunt, quia utraque partium habet sensum, quod patet ex hoc quod retrahit se si pungitur, et etiam habet motum secundum locum, ut ad sensum apparet; sic ergo in una et eadem parte apparet et sensitivum et motivum principium. Et si est ibi sensus, necesse est quod sit ibi phantasia (phantasia enim nihil aliud est quam motus factus a sensu secundum actum, ut infra dicetur),
265. So also we see in the other differences of soul, as in segmented animals when cut up, that is, in those animals that remain alive after being cut up. For each division still has sensation: this is clear since it will shrink back if you prick it, and it even has local motion, as is apparent to sensation. So in one and the same part there is, evidently, the principle of sensation and of movement. And if there is sensation, then it must also have imagination, for imagination is nothing more than a certain motion made by an actual sensation, as will be said below.1
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et similiter si habet sensum pars decisa, necesse est quod habeat appetitum: ad sensum enim de necessitate sequitur laetitia et tristitia sive delectatio et dolor (necesse est enim, si sensibile perceptum est conveniens, quod sit delectabile, si autem est nocivum, quod sit dolorosum), ubi autem est dolor et delectatio, oportet quod sit desiderium et appetitus; unde necesse est quod, si pars decisa sentit, quod etiam habeat appetitum.
Again, if the divided part has sense, it must also have appetite, since sensation necessarily involves joy and sorrow, that is, pleasure and pain. For it is necessary that, if the perceived sensible is agreeable, it is pleasant, or if harmful, it is painful. But where there is pleasure and pain there must be desire and appetite. So if divided parts of such animals are able to sense, then they also have appetite.
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266. Sic ergo manifestum est quod vegetativum, sensitivum, appetitivum et motivum inveniuntur in una parte decisa, ex quo patet quod non distinguuntur loco in corpore animalis. Sed de quibusdam potentiis particularibus manifestum est quod distinguuntur loco: visus enim manifeste non est nisi in oculo, auditus in aure, olfactus in naribus, gustus in lingua et palato. Sed primus sensus (qui est tactus) et necessarius animali est in toto.
266. In this way, then, it is manifest that one such divided part contains the vegetative, sensitive, appetitive and locomotive principles all together, and from that it is clear that these principles are not to be distinguished by place in the animal’s body. Yet certain powers are obviously distinguished by place: seeing is only in the eye, hearing in the ear, smelling in the nostrils, taste on the tongue and palate. But the primary and most necessary sense, that of touch, is found in the whole body.
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267. Sed quod dicit, quod phantasia est in parte decisa, videtur esse dubium. Nam a quibusdam phantasiae attribuitur determinatum organum in corpore. Sed sciendum est quod phantasia invenitur indeterminata in animalibus imperfectis, in animalibus vero perfectis determinata, sicut infra in III dicetur; organum ergo aliquod determinatum phantasiae attribuitur ad maiorem perfectionem et determinationem sui actus, non sine quo phantasiae actus nullo modo esse possit sicut actus visus nullo modo potest esse sine oculo. Sic igitur manifestavit in quibusdam potentiis animae non est difficile videre utrum sint separabiles loco.
267. But a doubt may arise about imagination in the severed part, for some assign to it a determinate organ of the body. But note that imagination in the imperfect animals is indeterminate, as will be shown below in book 3; it is determined only in the perfect animals.1 Hence, if we assign a determinate organ to imagination, this is because of the greater perfection and determination of its activities, without which the act of imagination cannot occur, just as the act of seeing cannot occur without an eye. Thereby he has manifested, then, that it is not difficult to see whether, for certain powers of the soul, they are separable in place.
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268. Deinde cum dicit: de intellectu autem etc., ostendit in qua parte animae possit esse dubium. Et dicit quod de intellectu et quocumque nomine vocetur perspectiva potentia, id est speculativa, nihil est adhuc manifestum: nondum enim per ea quae dicta sunt apparet utrum habeat aliquod organum in corpore vel distinctum loco ab aliis organis vel non distinctum; sed tamen, quantum in superficie apparet, videtur quod sit alterum genus animae ab aliis partibus animae, id est alterius naturae et alio modo esse habens, et quod hoc solum genus animae possit separari ab aliis partibus animae, vel etiam quod sit separatum ab organo corporeo, sicut perpetuum a corruptibili. Sed quod reliquae partes animae non sint separabiles loco ab invicem, manifestum est ex praedictis.
268. Then, at but as regards the intellect (413b24), he points to one part of the soul over which doubts may arise. As regards the intellect, and whatever we call the theoretical or speculative power, nothing is yet manifest. For based on what has been said it is not yet apparent whether it has any organ in the body or is distinct in place from the other organs or is not so distinct. But, even at first sight, it seems to be a different kind of soul than the other parts of the soul, that is, it seems to be of a different nature and to carry itself in a different way; and it seems that it alone is separable from the other parts of the soul (or even seems to exist separate from a bodily organ) as the eternal from the perishable. That the other parts of the soul are not separable from each other in place is evident from the foregoing.
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269. Deinde cum dicit: ratione autem etc., ostendit quod sint separabiles ratione. Cuiuslibet enim potentiae ratio est secundum ordinem ad actum: unde necesse est, si actus sunt diversi secundum speciem, quod potentiae habeant diversam rationem speciei. Et hoc est quod dicit quod alterum est esse sensitivo et opinativo, id est intellectivo (id est altera est ratio utriusque potentiae), si sentire est alterum ab opinari; et similiter est de praedictis aliis potentiis.
269. Then, at in account (413b29), he shows that the parts are separable in account. For the account of every power is according to the order to its act; if the acts are specifically distinct, then, the powers must have a diverse account of species. Hence, he says here that the sensitive and the opining, that is, intellectual, powers are diverse, that is, have different accounts, for sensing is other than forming opinions; and the same is true of the other powers already mentioned.
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270. Deinde cum dicit: quod autem quibusdam etc., solvit primam quaestionem. Et dicit quod hoc facit differentiam in animalibus quod quibusdam animalium insunt omnia praedicta, quibusdam vero quaedam horum, aliis vero unum solum. Quibuscumque autem inest unum solum praedictorum, oportet quod illud in eis sit anima; in quibus vero insunt plura, quodlibet est pars animae, sed illa anima denominatur a principaliori vel sensitiva vel intellectiva. Quare autem hoc sit quod quaedam habent unum, quaedam plura, quaedam omnia, posterius dicetur. Et sicut accidit circa potentias animae, ita accidit circa sensus: quaedam enim habent omnes sensus, sicut animalia perfecta, quaedam vero habent quosdam sensus sed non omnes, ut talpa, quaedam autem habent unum maxime necessarium, scilicet tactum, ut animalia imperfecta.
270. Then, at further, all these powers (413b32), he answers the first of the two questions proposed above. And he says that this makes a variety of animals because in some animals are all these powers, the powers mentioned above; in others, only some of them; and in some, only one. And where only one of these principles is found, it is the soul itself; but where several are found together, each is a part of the soul and the soul itself is named after the more principal part, whether sensitive or intellectual, as the case may be (the reason why animals differ in this way will be shown later).1 And as with the powers of the soul, so with regard to the senses; for some (that is, the perfect animals) have all the senses; some (for example, moles) have some, but not all; yet others (that is, the imperfect animals) have only the most necessary one, touch.
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Potest autem et haec particula ad alium sensum referri, ut dicatur quod, quia superius ostenderat Philosophus quod partes animae non sunt separabiles ab invicem loco vel subiecto in animali in quo sunt, quod propter hoc etiam non separentur in diversis animalibus, sed cuicumque inest unum, inessent omnia; et ideo removet hoc in hac particula.
But this phrase might also be brought back to the other sense, so that it would be said that, because the Philosopher had shown earlier that the parts of the soul in an animal are not separable from each other in place or subject, on account of this they are not separated even in the diverse animals; rather, in whatever animal one part is found, so too are all found. So, in this phrase, he is removing this view.
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271. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem quo vivimus etc., ostenso quod anima est primum vivendi principium, concludit ex hoc definitionem prius assignatam. Et circa hoc duo facit:
271. Next, at since (414a4), he concludes, from the fact that the soul is the first principle of living, to the definition of it already given. And for this he does two things:
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primo demonstrat propositum;
first, he proves the definition;
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secundo ex veritate demonstrata quasdam conclusiones ulterius inducit, ibi: et propter hoc bene opinantur etc.
second, at and on this account (414a19; [276]), he draws some further conclusions from the truth of that demonstration.
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Circa primum ponit talem demonstrationem: duorum quorum utroque dicimur esse aliquid aut operari, unum, scilicet quod primum est, est quasi forma et aliud quasi materia; sed anima est primum quo vivimus, cum tamen vivamus anima et corpore; ergo anima est forma corporis viventis. Et haec est definitio superius de anima posita, quod anima est actus primus physici corporis potentia vitam habentis; manifestum est autem quod medium huius demonstrationis est quaedam definitio animae, scilicet anima est quo vivimus primum.
For the first, he demonstrates thus. By each of two things something is said to be and to act, one is as form (which is the first) the other as matter. But the soul is the first thing whereby we live, even though we live by both the soul and the body. The soul, then, is the form of the living body. And this agrees with the definition already given: the soul is the first act of a natural body potentially having life.1 Clearly, the middle term of this demonstration is a certain definition of the soul as the first thing by which we live.
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272. Circa hanc autem demonstrationem quatuor facit.
272. He sets out the argument in four parts.
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Primo ponit maiorem, dicens quod quo vivimus et sentimus dicitur dupliciter, scilicet altero sicut forma et altero sicut materia, sicut et quo scimus dicitur dupliciter (duobus enim dicimur scire, quorum unum est scientia et aliud est anima), et similiter quo sanamur dicitur de duobus, quorum unum est sanitas et aliud est aliqua pars corporis vel etiam totum corpus; utrobique autem unum est quasi forma et aliud quasi materia: nam scientia et sanitas sunt formae quasi actus susceptivorum, scientia quidem forma scientifici, id est partis animae in qua est scientia, sanitas vero est forma corporis sanabilis (ideo autem dicit sanabile et scientificum ut ostendat aptitudinem in subiecto ad tales formas: semper enim activorum actus, id est formae quae inducuntur ab agentibus in materia, videntur esse in patiente et disposito, id est in eo quod est natum pati actiones agentis a tali agente et quod est dispositum ad consequendum finem passionis, scilicet formam ad quam patiendo perducitur).
First, explaining the major premise, he observes that we can speak of that whereby we live and sense in two ways (414a4), as by a form and as by matter, like we speak of that by which we know as proceeding either from knowledge or from the soul, or as we speak of that by which we are healthy as both the health and another thing that is some part of the body or even to the whole of it. In both these cases, one of them is as form and the other as matter. For knowledge or health are forms as the act of something that receives it: knowledge is a form of what is able to know, that is, of the part of the soul in which there is knowledge, and health is the form of a body that is able to be healthy. Thus, he says able to know and able to be healthy in order to indicate the particular subject’s aptitude to its particular form. For the acts of agents, that is, the forms induced into matter by agents, always appear to exist in the thing acted upon and disposed, that is, the form is in that which is naturally apt to suffer the actions of an agent from this sort of agent, and which is disposed to attain the end of the suffering, namely, the form to which it is led in being acted upon.
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273. Secundo ibi: anima autem hoc etc., ponit minorem propositionem. Et dicit quod anima est primum quo vivimus et sentimus et movemur et intelligimus. Et referuntur haec quatuor ad quatuor genera vitae de quibus superius fecerat mentionem: vivere enim refertur ad principium vegetativum, quia supra dixerat quod vivere propter hoc principium inest omnibus viventibus. Sciendum est autem quod, quamvis sanitate et corpore dicamur esse sani, tamen sanitas est primum quo sani esse dicimur: non enim dicimur esse sani corpore nisi inquantum habet sanitatem; et similiter scientia est primum quo dicimur esse scientes quia anima non dicimur esse scientes nisi inquantum habet scientiam; similiter etiam corpore non dicimur esse viventes nisi inquantum habet animam, et propter hoc hic dicitur quod anima est primum quo vivimus et sentimus, etc.
273. Second, at and soul being that by which (414a12), he states the minor premise, saying that the soul is that by which primarily we live and sense and move and understand—these being the four chief genera of life already mentioned (to live here refers to the vegetative principle which, as has been said, is common to all living things (413a31)).1 Now, although we are said to be healthy by both health and the body, still health is that by which we are called healthy primarily. For only insofar as the body has health are we said to be healthy. So, too, knowledge is that by which we are primarily said to be knowers, since we are not said to be knowers by the soul except insofar as the soul has knowledge. Likewise, we are not said to be alive by the body except insofar as the body has a soul. Therefore, he says that the soul is that by which primarily we live and sense and move and understand.
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274. Tertio ibi: quare ratio quaedam etc., ponit conclusionem; et pendet usque huc constructio ab illo loco: quoniam autem quo vivimus etc. Concludit ergo ex praedictis quod anima se habet ut ratio et species et non sicut materia et subiectum.
274. Third, he provides the conclusion, at it follows that the soul (414a13), linking this premise with the one at since we can speak (414a4). Thus, he concludes that the soul stands as an account and species, and not as the matter and subject.
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275. Quarto ibi: tripliciter enim dicta substantia etc., ostendit conclusionem sequi ex praemissis. Non enim videbatur magis sequi de anima quod sit forma quam de corpore, cum utroque vivere dicamur; unde ad perfectionem praedictae demonstrationis subiungit quod, cum substantia dicatur tripliciter, ut supra dictum est, scilicet de materia et forma et composito ex utrisque, quorum materia est [in] potentia et species sive forma est actus et ex utrisque est animatum, manifestum est quod corpus non est actus animae, sed magis anima est actus corporis alicuius, corpus autem est in potentia respectu animae. Et ideo, cum consequatur ex praedicta demonstratione quod vel corpus vel anima sit species, et corpus, ut nunc dictum est, non sit species animae, <relinquitur> quod anima sit species corporis.
275. Fourth, at substance is spoken of (414a14), he shows how this conclusion follows from the premises. For it might have seemed to follow that the body no less than the soul was a form, since we are said to live by both. So, to complete the demonstration, he adds that since, as we have said, the term “substance” can refer to three things, to matter, to form, and to the complex of both (the matter is the in potency; the form or species, the act; and the composite, the thing that is ensouled), then the body is clearly not the act of the soul, but rather, the soul is the act of a certain body, whereas the body is in potency with respect to the soul.1 And since the foregoing demonstration has led us to the alternative that the species is either the soul or the body, we can now conclude that the species is the soul; for it is now clear that the body is not the species of the soul.
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276. Deinde cum dicit: et propter hoc bene opinantur etc., inducit quasdam conclusiones ex praemissis.
276. Then, at and on this account (414a19), he deduces certain conclusions from the foregoing.
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Quarum prima est quod bene opinati sunt quibus visum est quod anima non sit sine corpore neque corpus: non enim est corpus, quia non est materia, sed est aliquid corporis, quia est actus corporis. Et quia omnis actus est in eo cuius est actus, infert consequenter ibi: et propter hoc, in corpore etc.
First, that they were right who thought that the soul was not apart from the body nor the same as the body. It is not the body, for it is not matter, but it is essentially involved with the body, because it is its actuality; from which too it follows, as he says here, that it exists in a body (414a21) whose actuality it is.
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277. Secundam conclusionem, scilicet quod anima est in corpore et in tali corpore, scilicet physico organico; et hoc non est per modum quo priores philosophi loquebantur de anima et unione eius ad corpus nihil determinantes in quo vel quali corpore esset.
277. Second, being then in the body, and in a certain sort of body, namely, a natural and organized one, it is not, however, in it as the earlier (414a22) philosophers said, when they spoke of the soul and its union with the body. For they did not determine in which body it was and of what sort.
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Et vere hoc est sicut nunc dicimus quod anima est in determinato corpore, cum non videatur anima accipere quodcumque corpus contingat, sed determinatum. Et hoc rationabiliter accidit, quia unusquisque actus natus est fieri in propria et determinata materia, unde et anima oportet quod in determinato corpore recipiatur.
And truly, as we now say, the soul is in a determinate body, since it does not seem possible that the soul can receive just any body, but a determinate one. And this we should reasonably expect because each act is naturally apt to occur in its proper and determinate matter. So also, then, the soul is received in a determinate body.
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278. Ultimo autem epilogando concludit quod anima est actus quidam et ratio habentis esse huiusmodi in potentia, scilicet potentia viventis.
278. Summarizing, he concludes that the soul is a certain act and account of a thing that has the potency to exist in this way, that is, of what is potentially alive (414a27).
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L. 5 (B.3, 414a29–414b31)The soul’s powers in general
Quotnam sint et quae animae vires, et quomodo se invicem ordine quodam sequantur exponit, ac quo pacto singulis earum animae ratio conveniat, quam proxime explicaverat
The soul’s powers in general
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Potentiarum autem animae quae dictae, aliis quidem insunt omnes, aliis vero quaedam harum, quibusdam vero una sola. Potentias autem diximus vegetativum, sensitivum, appetitivum, motivum secundum locum, intellectivum.
Of the soul’s powers already spoken of, all are present in some, only some are present in others, and only one in yet others. By the powers of the soul, we mean the vegetative, the sensitive, the appetitive, the locomotive and the intellectual.
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Inest autem plantis vegetativum solum, alteris autem hoc et sensitivum. Si autem sensitivum, et appetitivum; appetitus quidem enim desiderium et ira et voluntas sunt. Animalia autem omnia habent unum sensum, tactum; cui autem sensus inest, huic et laeticia et tristitia et dulce et triste; quibus autem haec, et concupiscentia: delectabilis enim appetitus haec.
In plants there is only the vegetative; in other living things, this and the sensitive power; but if the sensitive power is present, so must the appetitive be present, for appetite is desire, anger, and will. Now, all animals have one sense, touch; and where sensation is found there is both joy and sorrow, both the agreeable and the disagreeable. What has these has desire, for this appetite is for the delightful.
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Adhuc alimenti sensum habent: tactus enim alimenti sensus. Siccis enim et humidis et calidis et frigidis aluntur omnia viventia, horum autem sensus, tactus, sed aliorum sensibilium secundum accidens: nihil enim in alimentum confert sonus neque color neque odor; humor1 autem unum aliquod est tangibilium. Esuries autem et sitis concupiscentia, et esuries quidem calidi et sicci, sitis autem frigidi et humidi. Sapor vero ut delectamentum horum est. Certificandum autem de his posterius est, nunc autem in tantum dictum sit quod animalibus habentibus tactum, et appetitus insit. De phantasia autem inmanifestum, posterius autem intendendum est. Quibusdam autem ad haec inest et secundum locum motivum, alteris autem intellectivum et intellectus, ut hominibus et si aliquod alterum huiusmodi est aut et honorabilius.
Further, all have a sense of food, for touch is a sense of food. For all living beings are nourished by things dry and wet or hot and cold; and the sense of touch is of these. But they are nourished by the other sense-objects accidentally; for sound, color, and smell contribute nothing to nutrition; and as for savor, it is something belonging to the objects of touch. Hunger and thirst being desires, hunger for the hot and dry, and thirst for the cold and wet, savor is, as it were, the delectable in these. We must settle these questions later; for the present let us only say that animals endowed with touch have appetite also. The case of imagination is not clear and must be examined later. Some animals, again, have local motion; some have intellect and understanding—such as men and if there is something else of this sort or even more excellent.
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Manifestum igitur est quoniam eodem modo una utique erit ratio animae et figurae: neque enim ibi figura est praeter triangulum et quae consequenter sunt, neque hic anima praeter predictas est. Fiet autem utique et in figuris ratio communis, quae convenit quidem omnibus, propria autem nullius erit figurae. Similiter autem et in dictis animabus. Unde ridiculum est quaerere communem rationem et in his et in alteris, quae nullius erit eorum quae sunt propria ratio, neque secundum propriam et individuam speciem, dimittentes huiusmodi. Similiter autem se habent ei quod de figuris est et quae secundum animam sunt: semper enim in eo quod est consequenter, est potentia quod prius est in figuris et in animatis, ut in tetragono quidem trigonum est, in sensitivo autem vegetativum.
It is, therefore, clear that the account of soul must be one in the same way as that of figure: for just as there is no figure apart from the triangle and those that derive from it, so there is no soul apart from the aforesaid. There will be, however, in the case of figures, an account common to all figures yet proper to none. Likewise with these souls just mentioned. Hence it is absurd to seek a common account in this matter (or in any other) which will be the proper account of no existing thing, and on the other hand, to seek to define in terms of the individual species without taking into account such a common definition. There is indeed a likeness between what holds of figures and what holds of the soul. For that which is prior is always potentially in that which is subsequent in both figures and ensouled beings, such as the triangle is in the square, and the vegetative in the sensitive.
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279. Potentiarum autem animae quae dictae etc. Postquam Aristoteles definivit animam in communi, nunc accedit ad determinandum de partibus eius; non autem habet aliter anima partes nisi secundum quod eius potentiae partes eius dicuntur, prout alicuius potentis multa, partes dici possunt potestates ad singula; unde determinare de partibus animae est determinare de singulis potentiis eius. Dividitur autem haec pars in duas:
279. Of the soul’s powers already spoken of (414a29). After defining the soul in general, Aristotle comes to treat of its parts. Now, the soul has no parts except in the sense that its powers are said to be parts of it, in that one subject, being in potency to many activities, its capacities with respect to each in particular can be called parts of it. To treat of the soul’s parts, then, is to treat of its various powers. This he does here in two main sections:
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in prima determinat de potentiis animae in communi distinguendo eas ad invicem;
the first determines the soul’s powers in general and their distinction from one another;
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in secunda determinat de singulis earum, ibi: quare primum de alimento et generatione etc.
the second, at we must first speak (415a22; [309]), takes them one by one.
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Prima autem pars dividitur in duas:
The former subdivides into two:
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in prima distinguit potentias animae ad invicem;
first, a division of the powers of the soul;
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in secunda ostendit quid de potentiis animae et quomodo et ordine determinandum sit, ibi: quare et secundum unumquodque quaerendum etc.
and second, at so we must inquire (414b32; [299]), a discussion of what has to be determined about them, and how, and in what order.
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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primo distinguit potentias animae ad invicem;
First, he distinguishes the powers of the soul.
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secundo ostendit quomodo ratio communis animae se habeat ad partes praedictas, ibi: manifestum igitur est quoniam eodem etc.
Second, at it is, therefore, clear (414b19; [295]), he shows how the common account of the soul is related to the aforementioned parts.
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things:
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primo enumerat potentias animae;
he first enumerates the powers of the soul;
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secundo ostendit quomodo se invicem consequantur, ibi: inest autem plantis, etc.
and second, he shows how they are related to each other, at in plants there is (414a32; [288]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod de potentiis animae quae supra nominatae sunt, quibusdam insunt omnes, sicut hominibus, quibusdam quaedam harum, sicut aliis animalibus, quibusdam una tantum, sicut plantis. Et quia superius non nominaverat eas potentias, sed partes animae, ideo manifestat quod per potentias idem intelligit quod supra per partes, quarum quidem sunt quinque genera, scilicet vegetativum, sensitivum, appetitivum, motivum secundum locum, intellectivum.
First of all, then, he observes that, of the powers already enumerated, all are in some beings (men); some are in some (the other animals); and one only is in some others (plants).1 And having previously called them not “powers” but “parts” of the soul, he makes it clear that he understands the same thing by “powers” here that he meant by “parts.” Now, of these there are five genera: the vegetative, sensitive, appetitive, locomotive, and intellectual.
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280. Oportet autem haec duo videre:
280. Regarding this fivefold division, two things must be made clear:
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primo quidem quare ponuntur hic quinque genera potentiarum animae, praecipue cum consuetum sit dici triplicem esse animam, vegetabilem, sensibilem et rationalem;
first, why the customary threefold division of the soul into vegetative, sensitive, and rational is set aside so as to give this fivefold division of the genera of the soul’s powers.
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secundo considerare oportet quare hic ponit quinque cum superius posuerit tantum quatuor.
and second, why he here presents five when has already made only a fourfold division.
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281. Sciendum autem circa primum quod, cum omnis potentia dicatur ad actum proprium, potentia operativa dicitur ad actum qui est operatio; potentiae autem animae sunt operativae, talis enim est potentia formae; unde necesse est secundum diversas operationes animae accipi diversitatem potentiarum. Operatio autem animae est operatio rei viventis.
281. As to the first, we should note that, because all potencies are spoken of in reference to their proper acts, active potencies are spoken of in reference to the act that is activity. Now, the soul’s potencies are active, for this sort of potency belongs to a form; hence, by differences between the soul’s activities we have to differentiate between its potencies. The activity of the soul, however, is the activity of a living thing.
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Cum igitur unicuique competat propria operatio secundum quod habet esse, eo quod unumquodque operatur inquantum est ens, oportet operationes animae considerare secundum quod invenitur in viventibus.
Now, as the proper activity of anything belongs to it insofar as it has existence, because each thing acts insofar as it is a being, we have to study the soul’s activities precisely insofar as it is found in the living beings.
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282. Huiusmodi autem viventia inferiora quorum actus est anima de qua nunc agitur, habent duplex esse: unum quidem materiale in quo conveniunt cum aliis rebus materialibus; aliud autem immateriale in quo communicant cum substantiis superioribus aliqualiter;
282. However, lower living things, whose actuality is soul (which is the subject of the present discussion), have existence in two ways: one, material, in which they fit with all other material things; and the other, immaterial, by which they have in some way something in common with higher substances.
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283. est autem differentia inter utrumque esse, quia secundum esse materiale, quod est per materiam contractum, unaquaeque res est hoc solum quod est, sicut hic lapis non est aliud quam hic lapis; secundum vero esse immateriale, quod est amplum et quodammodo infinitum, inquantum non est per materiam terminatum, res non solum est id quod est, sed etiam est quodammodo alia; unde in substantiis superioribus immaterialibus sunt quodammodo omnia sicut in universalibus causis.
283. Now, there is this difference between these two divisions of existence: insofar as its existence is material, which is restricted by its matter, each reality is only the thing it is, for example, this stone is nothing other than this stone; but insofar as its existence is immaterial, which has breadth and is in a certain way infinite insofar as it is not bounded by matter, the reality is not only the thing it is, but is in a certain way other things as well. That is why everything preexists, somehow, in the higher immaterial substances, as in universal causes.
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284. Huiusmodi autem immateriale esse habet duos gradus in istis inferioribus: nam quoddam est penitus immateriale, scilicet esse intelligibile, in intellectu enim res habent esse et sine materia et sine conditionibus materialibus individuantibus et etiam absque organo corporali;
284. But in lower things, immaterial existence has two degrees. For there is a certain thoroughly immaterial existence, that is, intelligible existence; for in the intellect, things have existence not only without matter but even without their individuating material conditions, and also apart from any bodily organ.
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esse autem sensibile est medium inter utrumque, nam in sensu res habet esse absque materia, non tamen absque conditionibus materiae individuantibus neque absque organo corporali; est enim sensus particularium, intellectus vero universalium; et quantum ad hoc duplex esse dicit philosophus in III huius quod anima est quodammodo omnia.
However, sensible existence is intermediate between each. For in sensing, a thing has existence apart from its matter, yet not without matter’s individuating conditions, nor apart from a bodily organ. For sensation is of particular things, but understanding is of universals. It is with reference to these two modes of existence that the Philosopher will say, in book 3, that the soul is somehow all things.1
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285. Operationes igitur quae competunt viventi secundum esse materiale sunt operationes quae attribuuntur animae vegetabili, quae tamen, licet ad id ordinentur ad quod etiam ordinantur actiones in rebus inanimatis, scilicet ad consequendum esse et conservandum, tamen in viventibus hoc fit per altiorem et nobiliorem modum:
285. The activities, therefore, that belong to living things according to their material existence are those we attribute to the vegetative soul. Yet even though they are ordered to what the actions of non-souled beings are ordered, that is, to attain and maintain existence, nonetheless in living things this occurs in a higher and nobler way.
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corpora enim inanimata generantur et conservantur in esse a principio motivo extrinseco, animata vero generantur a principio intrinseco quod est in semine, conservantur vero a principio nutritivo intrinseco, hoc enim videtur esse viventium proprium quod operentur tamquam ex seipsis mota. Operationes autem quae attribuuntur rebus viventibus secundum esse penitus immateriale pertinent ad partem animae intellectivam. Quae vero attribuuntur eis secundum esse medium pertinent ad partem animae sensitivam. Et secundum hoc triplex esse distinguitur communiter triplex anima, scilicet vegetabilis, sensibilis et rationalis.
For bodies that do not have souls are generated and maintained by an exterior moving principle, whereas ensouled bodies are generated by an intrinsic principle that is in the seed and are maintained in existence by an intrinsic nutritive principle. For it seems proper to living things that their activities should thus proceed from within themselves. But the purely immaterial activities of living things pertain to the intellectual part of the soul, while those attributed to them according to the intermediate existence pertain to its sensitive part. Hence it is usual to distinguish generally three souls: vegetative, sensitive, and rational.
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286. Sed quia omne esse est secundum aliquam formam, oportet quod esse sensibile sit secundum formam sensibilem et esse intelligibile secundum formam intelligibilem; ex unaquaque autem forma sequitur aliqua inclinatio et ex inclinatione operatio, sicut ex forma naturali ignis sequitur inclinatio ad locum qui est sursum, secundum quam ignis dicitur levis, et ex hac inclinatione sequitur operatio, scilicet motus qui est sursum; ad formam igitur tam sensibilem quam intelligibilem sequitur inclinatio quaedam quae dicitur appetitus sensibilis vel intellectualis, sicut inclinatio consequens formam naturalem dicitur appetitus naturalis, ex appetitu autem sequitur operatio, quae est motus localis. Haec igitur est ratio quare oportet esse quinque genera potentiarum animae, quod primo quaerebatur.
286. But since everything exists according to some form, sensible existence exists according to a sensible form, and intelligible existence according to an intelligible form. Now, from every form follows a certain inclination, and from the inclination follows an activity, just as from the form of fire follows the inclination to an upper place (according to which fire is said to be light), and from this inclination follows the activity, that is, the movement upwards. Therefore on both the sensible and the intellectual form follows a certain inclination that is called the sensitive or intellectual appetite, just the inclination following on a natural form is called a natural appetite, from which appetite, moreover, follows the activity that is local motion. Here, then, is the explanation we required of the fivefold division of the genera of the powers of soul.
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287. Circa secundum sciendum est quod supra Aristoteles intendens ostendere quod anima est principium vivendi in omnibus viventibus, distinxit ipsum vivere secundum gradus viventium et non secundum operationes vitae secundum quas distinguuntur haec genera potentiarum; appetitivum autem non constituit aliquem gradum in viventibus quia omnia quae habent sensum habent appetitum et sic remanent tantum quatuor gradus viventium, ut supra ostensum est.
287. And as to the second point, note that when Aristotle wished to show that soul was the principle of living in all things that live, he divided living itself according to the grades of living things, and not according to the activities of life, according to which these genera of the powers are distinguished. Moreover, since all things that sense also have appetite, the appetitive does not constitute a distinct grade among living being; so we are left with only four such grades given above.1
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288. Deinde cum dicit: inest autem plantis etc., ostendit quomodo praedictae potentiae consequuntur se invicem, manifestans quod supra dixerat quod potentiarum quibusdam insunt omnes, quibusdam quaedam, quibusdam una sola. Ubi considerandum est quod ad hoc quod universum sit perfectum nullus gradus perfectionis in rebus intermittitur, sed paulatim natura de imperfectis ad perfecta procedit; propter quod etiam Aristoteles in VIII Metaphysicae assimilat species rerum numeris, qui paulatim in augmentum proficiunt.
288. Then, at in plants there is only (414a32), he shows how the powers of the soul follow upon one another, thus explaining what he said previously, that all these powers are present in (414a29) some things, some of them in some, and only one in yet others.1 Here we have to consider that the completeness of the universe requires that there should be no gaps in its order; rather, nature proceeds by degrees from the less to the more perfect. Hence, in Metaphysics 8, Aristotle likens the species of things to numbers, which increase by degrees, one by one.2
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Unde in viventibus quaedam habent unum tantum praedictorum, scilicet plantae, in quibus est solum vegetativum, quod necesse est in omnibus viventibus materialibus esse, quia huic potentiae attribuuntur operationes pertinentes ad esse materiale;
Thus, among living things, there are some, that is, plants, which have only the vegetative capacity—which, indeed, all material living things must have because the activities pertaining to material being are attributed to this power.
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aliis autem, scilicet animalibus, inest vegetativum et sensitivum. Si autem est ibi sensitivum, oportet quod adsit tertium, scilicet appetitivum; quod quidem dividitur in tria, scilicet desiderium, quod est secundum vim concupiscibilem, et iram, quae est secundum vim irascibilem; qui duo appetitus pertinent ad partem sensitivam, sequuntur enim apprehensionem sensus; tertium autem est voluntas, quae est appetitus intellectivus, consequens scilicet apprehensionem intellectus.
Next are the animals, with the sensitive power as well as the vegetative; and if the sensitive power is there, there must be a third power, appetite, which itself divides into three: desire, which springs from the concupiscible power; anger, which springs from the irascible power—both of these appetites pertain to the sensitive part for they follow on sensory apprehension; and finally, will, which is the intellectual appetite, that is, what follows intellectual apprehension.
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289. Quod autem appetitivum insit omnibus animalibus, probat duplici ratione.
289. That appetite exists in all animals he demonstrates in two ways.
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Quarum prima est quod omnia animalia habent ad minus unum sensum, scilicet tactum; quibus autem inest sensus, inest laetitia et tristitia, id est delectatio et dolor (laetitia enim et tristitia magis videntur sequi apprehensionem interiorem, sed delectatio et dolor consequuntur apprehensionem sensus et praecipue sensus tactus), et si est laetitia et tristitia, necesse est quod sit aliquid dulce et triste, id est delectabile et dolorosum (oportet enim, omne quod sentitur secundum tactum esse vel conveniens, et sic est delectabile, vel nocivum, et sic est dolorosum); quibuscumque autem est aliquid delectabile et triste, his inest et concupiscentia, quae est appetitus delectabilis; ergo de primo ad ultimum omnibus animalibus quibus inest sensus tactus, inest appetitus.
First, all animals have at least one sense, touch; but where there is any sensation there is joy and sorrow, that is, pleasure and pain. For while joy and sorrow seem to follow an inward apprehension, pain and pleasure follow on sensory apprehension, and especially the sense of touch. But if joy and sorrow are there, so must be the agreeable and disagreeable object, that is, something pleasant and painful. For everything sensed according to touch is either suitable to the one touching, and then it gives pleasure, or harmful, and then it gives pain. But whatever can feel pleasure and pain has desire, which is the appetite for the pleasant. Since, then, all animals, from the first to the last, have a sense of touch, all have appetite.
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290. Secundam rationem ad idem ostendendum ponit ibi: adhuc alimenti etc., quae talis est. Omnia animalia habent sensum quo cognoscunt suum alimentum, scilicet sensum tactus, qui est sensus alimenti. Et quia necessarium est omnibus animalibus uti alimento, ut dictum est, ideo necessarium est quod habeant sensum tactus quo percipiant alimentum sibi conveniens.
290. The second argument begins at further, all have (414b6), and runs thus. All animals have the sense that is aware of its own food, and this is the sense of touch. And because it is necessary for all animals to use food, as was said, it is therefore necessary that they have the sense of touch by which they perceive the food that is fitting to them.1
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Et quod tactus sit sensus alimenti, manifestum est: sicuti enim corpora viventia constant ex calidis et humidis et frigidis et siccis, ita ex his nutriuntur; tactus autem est sensus discretivus horum; sed aliorum sensibilium, id est aliis sensibilibus, non nutriuntur viventia nisi secundum accidens, inquantum videlicet coniunguntur tangibilibus: sonus enim et odor et color nihil conferunt in alimentum inquantum huiusmodi, sed solum inquantum contingit colorata et odorata et sonantia esse calida vel frigida, humida vel sicca; humor autem, id est sapor, est quoddam de numero tangibilium qualitatum, sicut et gustus est quidam tactus. Sic igitur patet quod omnia animalia habent sensum alimenti.
The fact that it is touch that is the sense of food is clear if we consider that, as living bodies are made up of warm, moist, cold, and dry elements, it is by these that they are nourished; and these elements are just what touch discerns. But other sense-objects, he says, do not, save accidentally, nourish living bodies; they do so only so far as they are involved in the objects of touch. Sound, color, and smell contribute nothing to nutrition as such; they occur in food only insofar as things that sound or are colored or odorous are also hot or cold, moist or dry. However, the moist, that is, savor, is something belonging to the number of the qualities of the objects of touch, so that tasting is a sort of touch. Clearly, then, all animals have a sense-awareness of food.
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291. Quibuscumque autem inest sensus alimenti, his inest esuries et sitis, quorum utrumque est concupiscentia alimenti: esuries quidem est concupiscentia calidi et sicci, quod habet rationem cibi, sitis autem frigidi et humidi, quod habet rationem potus (sapor autem est quoddam horum delectamentum: sapor enim delectabilis indicat convenientem proportionem calidi et frigidi, humidi et sicci in alimento, unde magis pertinet ad delectationem alimenti quam ad necessitatem); sic igitur ubicumque est sensus tactus, est appetitus.
291. But whatever has this sensation of its food can feel hunger and thirst, each of which is a desire for food. Hunger is desire for the hot and the dry, what has the account of food; thirst for the cold and wet, what has the account of drink. Savor, however, is something delectable in these things, for a pleasing savor indicates a fitting proportion of the hot and the cold, the moist and the dry in the food. This is why it pertains more to the pleasure of food than to its necessity. Wherever there is the sense of touch, then, in this way there is appetite.
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292. Quomodo autem phantasia se habeat ad sensitivum et appetitivum, posterius dicetur.
292. How imagination relates to the appetitive and sensitive powers will be shown later.1
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293. Quibusdam autem animalibus supra haec tria, scilicet vegetativum, sensitivum et appetitivum, inest etiam motivum secundum locum, aliis vero supra haec quatuor inest etiam intellectivum et intellectus ipse, scilicet hominibus et si aliquod aliud genus rerum est simile hominibus aut etiam honorabilius hominibus. Invenitur autem aliquid honorabilius hominibus quibus inest intellectus: est enim in substantiis separatis et in corporibus caelestibus (si tamen sunt animata); sed in viventibus mortalibus non est aliquod genus viventium habentium intellectum nisi in specie humana:
293. Now, besides these three, the vegetative, the sensitive, and the appetitive, some animals, again, have the capacity to move from one place to another. In addition to these four capacities, intellect and understanding are also present in some, that is, in men and if there is something else, another genus of beings that is like human beings, or one even more excellent than human beings. The more excellent beings are the separated substances and the heavenly bodies—the latter, however, only if they are alive. Among mortal living beings, there is no genus of living things that have intellect except within the human species.
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294. cum enim intellectus non habeat organum corporale, non possunt diversificari habentia intellectum secundum diversam complexionem organorum, sicut diversificantur species sensitivorum secundum diversas complexiones quibus diversimode se habent ad operationes sensus.
294. For because intellect has no bodily organ, beings that have intellect cannot be differentiated according to a diversity in the constitution of organs, as are the different species of animals (whose different constitutions cause them to have the activities of sensation in different ways).
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295. Deinde cum dicit: manifestum igitur est etc., ostendit qualiter se habeat praedicta definitio animae ad partes enumeratas.
295. Then, at it is, therefore, clear (414b19), he shows how his definition of soul is related to the parts that we have enumerated.
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Et ad huius intellectum sciendum est quod Plato posuit universalia esse separata secundum esse, tamen in illis quae se habent consequenter non posuit unam ideam communem, sicut in numeris et figuris: non enim posuit unam ideam numeri praeter omnes numeros, sicut posuit unam ideam hominis praeter omnes homines, eo quod numerorum species naturali ordine consequenter se habent et sic prima earum, scilicet dualitas, est causa omnium consequentium, unde non oportet ponere aliquam ideam communem numeri ad causandum speciem numerorum; et similis ratio est de figuris: nam eius species consequenter se habent sicut et species numerorum, trigonum enim est ante tetragonum et tetragonum ante pentagonum.
To understand this we must remember that Plato asserted that universals were separated according to their existence, yet he did not assert an idea for things that stand in this consequent relation, as do numbers and figures. For he did not say there is an idea of number beyond all the numbers, the way he said there is an idea of man beyond all men, because the species of numbers stand in a successive order, and the first of these, duality, is the cause of all that come after it; this is why there is no need to posit a common idea of number as the cause of the species of numbers. And a similar argument applies to figures, for they follow each other as do the species of numbers; from the triangle comes the square, and from the latter, the pentagon.
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296. Dicit ergo manifestum esse quod eodem modo una est ratio animae sicut una est ratio figurae: sicuti enim inter figuras non est aliqua figura quae sit praeter triangulum et alias species consequentes, utpote quae sit idea communis omnium figurarum, ita nec in proposito est aliqua anima quasi separata existens praeter omnes praedictas partes.
296. Aristotle then says that it is clear that the account of soul must be one in the same way as the account of figure is one. For just as, among figures, there is no figure existing apart from the triangle and the consequent species, as the common idea of all figures, so too is there no soul that stands, as it were, existing in separation, apart from the aforesaid parts.
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297. Sed quamvis non sit una figura separata in esse praeter omnes figuras, etiam secundum Platonicos qui ponunt species communes separatas, [et] tamen invenitur una ratio communis, quae convenit omnibus figuris et non est propria alicuius earum. Ita est et in animalibus. Et ideo ridiculum est quod homo quaerat unam rationem communem tam in animalibus quam in aliis rebus, quae non conveniat alicui animarum quae sunt in rerum natura particulariter,
297. But although there is (even for the Platonists who posit common separated species) no figure separated in being outside all the figures, nevertheless there is found one account common to all figures, which is not proper to any particular one of them. And the same is true of animals. It would be ludicrous, therefore, for a man to seek one common account, whether of animals or anything else, that did not belong to any of the souls that are in the nature of things as particular.
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neque etiam est conveniens quod homo quaerat definitionem animae secundum unamquamque speciem animae et dimittat definitionem communem omnibus animabus; ergo neque definitio communis animae praetermittenda fuit neque sic est assignanda definitio communis animae quod non conveniat singulis animabus.
On the other hand, it will not do to seek the definition of soul in reference to each species of soul and reject a definition that is common to all souls. Therefore one should omit neither a common definition of soul nor should one designate a common definition of soul that does not belong to the individual souls.
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298. Et quia dixerat quod eodem modo se habeat ratio animae sicut ratio figurae, ostendit convenientiam inter utrumque et dicit quod similiter se habent figurae et animae ad invicem: in utrisque enim illud quod est prius est in potentia in eo quod est consequenter; manifestum est enim in figuris quod trigonum, quod est prius, est potentia in tetragono, potest enim tetragonum dividi in duos trigonos; et similiter in anima sensitiva vegetativum est quasi quaedam potentia eius et <non> quasi anima per se; et similiter est de aliis figuris et aliis partibus animae.
298. And since he had said that the account of the soul stands in the same way as the account of figure, he shows the congruence between them, and says that a likeness regarding what holds for figures and souls in relation to each other. For in both cases what is prior exists in potency in that which is subsequent. For it is manifest that, in figures, the three-sided figure, which is prior, exists potentially in the square, for the square is divisible into two triangles. Likewise in the soul, the sensitive contains the vegetative as a certain power of it, and not as a soul through itself. The same holds good with the other figures and the other parts of soul.
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L. 6 (B.3–4, 414b32–415a22)Interrelation and definition of the soul’s powersDe animae viribus singulis dicendum esse proponit: et incipiendum esse ab obiectis, ex quibus ipsi actus, et ex his pote
Quare et secundum unumquodque quaerendum, quae sit uniuscuiusque anima, ut quae plantae et quae hominis aut bestiae.
So we must inquire in each particular case what the soul is in plants, what is it for men, and what it is for beasts.
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Propter quam autem causam consequenter sic se habent, considerandum est. Sine enim vegetativo sensitivum non est, a sensitivo autem separatur vegetativum in plantis. Iterum autem sine quidem eo quod potest tangere, aliorum sensuum neque unus est, tactus autem sine aliis est: multa enim animalium neque visum neque auditum habent neque odoratus sensum. Et sensitivorum autem, alia quidem habent secundum locum motum, alia vero non habent. Ultimum autem et minimum ratiocinationem et intellectum; quibus enim inest ratiocinatio corruptibilium, his et reliqua omnia. Quibus autem illorum unumquodque, non omnibus ratiocinatio; sed quibusdam quidem neque imaginatio. Alia autem hac sola vivunt. De speculativo autem intellectu altera ratio est.
It must be considered why they stand in this order, for there is no sensitive soul without the vegetative, yet in plants the vegetative exists apart from the sensitive. Again, there can be no sense apart from what can touch, but touch exists without the others; for many animals have no sight or hearing or sense of smell. Again, among sentient beings, some have local motion, others not. Last and least extensive of all is that of the one that reasons and understands (as man and any other such). For among corruptible beings, reasoning is present in certain ones along with all the rest of the powers, but reason is not found in all those that have any one of the latter; some indeed have not even imagination, and others live by this alone. However, the account of the speculative intellect is different.
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Quod quidem igitur de horum unoquoque ratio haec propriissima et de anima manifestum est.
Clearly, then, whatever is the most proper account with respect to each of the above will also be that of the soul.
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Necessarium autem est debentem de his perscrutationem facere accipere unumquodque horum quid est, postea sic de habitis aut et de aliis investigare.
It is necessary for those making an inquiry of these things to take up what each of these is, and only then to investigate habits and other matters.
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Si autem oportet dicere quid unumquodque ipsorum, ut quid intellectivum aut sensitivum aut vegetativum, prius adhuc dicendum quid sit intelligere et quid sentire: priores enim potentiis actus et operationes secundum rationem sunt. Si autem sic, his adhuc priora opposita [oportet considerare]. De illis primum utique oportebit determinare propter eandem causam, ut de alimenta et sensibili et intelligibili.
But if one is to say what each of them is (namely, the intellectual power or the sensitive or the vegetative), one must first say what it is to understand and what it is to sense, for acts and activities are prior to potencies in account. And if this is so, one ought before that to consider their objects; for the same reason it will be necessary to determine, in the first place, what these things are—for instance, food, the sensible, and the intelligible.
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299. Quare et secundum unumquodque quaerendum etc. Postquam philosophus enumeravit genera potentiarum animae et quomodo se habet definitio communis animae supra posita ad partes eius, hic ostendit quid amodo determinandum sit et quo ordine. Et dividitur in partes duas:
299. So we must inquire in each particular case (414b32). After enumerating the genera of the powers of the soul and showing how the common definition given above is related to the particular parts of soul, now the Philosopher shows what should be determined and in what order, and this is divided into two parts.1
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in prima ostendit quid determinandum restat de anima;
First, he explains what remains to be determined about the soul;
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secundo ostendit quo ordine determinare oporteat, ibi: necessarium autem est debentem etc.
second, he explains in what order, at it is necessary for those making an inquiry (415a14 [303]).
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Circa primum ostendit duo restare ad determinandum. Quorum primum concludit ex praedictis:
There are, he says, still two points to be made clear, one of which follows from the argument just given.
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dictum est supra quod, sicut non est quaerenda talis definitio communis animae quae nulli animae partium conveniat, ita non debemus esse contenti definitione communi, sed oportet propriam definitionem cuiuslibet partis animae inquirere, et ex hoc concludit hic quod secundum unumquodque animatum quaerendum est quae sit uniuscuiusque anima, ut scilicet sciatur quid est anima plantae et quid anima hominis et quid anima bestiae; et hoc est scire de unaquaque parte animae quid sit.
For we have seen that, just as we must not be satisfied with the sort of common definition of soul that belongs to none of the particular souls, so too, we cannot rest content even with the common definition;1 rather, it is necessary to inquire into a proper definition of each part of the soul, and from this he concludes that we must inquire in each particular case what the soul is, so that one might know what the soul of a plant is, what the soul of a man is, and what the soul of a beast is—and this is to know what each part of the soul is.
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300. Secundo ibi: propter quam autem causam etc., ponit aliud quod restat ad determinandum. Dictum est enim supra quod partes animae consequenter se habent ad invicem, sicut species figurae; sed considerandum est propter quam causam partes animae hoc modo se habent consequenter: huius enim causam in fine libri assignabit. Exponit autem qualiter se habeant consequenter, quia sensitivum non potest esse sine vegetativo, sed vegetativum separatur a sensitivo in plantis. Nec est mirum, quia supra dictum est quod opera vegetativi ordinantur ad adipiscendum et conservandum esse naturale, quod subiacet quasi fundamentum.
300. Then, at it must be considered (414b33), he states the next point to be decided. He has already said that the parts of the soul stand or follow each other in a series like the species of figure; and it must be considered why.1 This reason will be given at the end of the treatise; here he only shows how the parts of soul follow one from the other successively.2 For the sensitive, he says, cannot exist without the vegetative, but the latter can, in plants, exist without the sensitive. And this is not surprising; for, as we have seen, the works of the vegetative activities are ordered to attaining and retaining natural existence, which underlies as the foundation of all the rest.3
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Iterum etiam consequentia quaedam invenitur in ipsis sensibus, quia sine sensu tactus nullus aliorum sensuum esse potest, tactus autem invenitur sine aliis sensibus: multa enim animalium neque visum habent neque auditum neque sensum odoratus, sed solum tactum. Et hoc etiam rationabiliter accidit: nam tactus est sensus perceptivus eorum quae pertinent ad consistentiam animalis, ex quibus scilicet animal constat et nutritur; alia vero sensibilia non conferunt ad hoc nisi per accidens, unde alii sensus non sunt de necessitate animalis et propter hoc non inveniuntur in omnibus animalibus, sed in perfectis.
And again, the senses themselves display a like sequence; there can be no sense at all unless there is touch; but touch exists without the others. For many animals have no sight, or hearing, or sense of smell, but only touch. And this will appear quite reasonable if we consider that touch is the sense that is perceptive of the things of which the animal consists (that is, what the animal is composed of and is nourished by); other sensible things do not contribute to this except accidentally. Hence the other senses are not necessary for an animal, and on account of this they are not found in all animals, but only in the perfect ones.
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301. Est etiam consideranda consequentia sensitivi et motivi: nam motivum non potest esse sine sensitivo, sensitivum autem potest esse sine motivo: aliqua enim habentium sensum habent etiam motum secundum locum, sed alia non habent. Sed intelligendum est hoc de motu progressivo animalium secundum quod animalia moventur de loco ad locum: hic enim motus non inest omnibus animalibus; sed quae carent hoc motu, habent aliquem motum localem, scilicet dilatationis et constrictionis, sicut apparet in ostreis.
301. Again, one must consider the connection between the sensitive and motive powers. For the motive power cannot exist without the sensitive, but the sensitive can be without the motive. For some of the things that have sense also have local motion, others not. We are speaking of the progressive movement of animals, whereby they move from one place to another; for this motion is not in all animals, though things that lack it have a certain local movement, that of expansion and contraction—this is apparent in shellfish.
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Illud autem quod est ultimum inter omnes partes animae et minimum, quia non dividitur in diversa secundum speciem, est quod habet rationem et intellectum, quia quibuscumque de numero corruptibilium inest ratio, his insunt et omnia alia praedicta.
The last among the parts of the soul—and the least extensive since it is not subdivided into different species—is that which has the reason and understands; because for whatever among the number of corruptible beings reason is found present in, there are found all the rest of the aforesaid powers.
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Hoc autem dicit ut praeservet se a substantiis separatis et a corporibus caelestibus (si sunt animata), quia, cum sint sine generatione et corruptione, non indigent vegetativo; item, eorum intellectus per se speculatur ea quae sunt secundum se intelligibilia, unde non indigent sensibus ad cognitionem intellectivam consequendam. Sed in mortalibus habentibus intellectum, necesse est omnia alia praeexistere sicut quaedam instrumenta et praeparatoria ad intellectum, qui est ultima perfectio intenta in operatione naturae.
He speaks this way to exclude separated substances and the heavenly bodies (if these are ensouled), since, as they exist apart from generation and corruption, they do not need the vegetative power; moreover, their intellect contemplates through itself things that are intelligible through themselves, so they do not require senses for attaining intellectual knowledge. But in mortal natures that have understanding, it is necessary that all the others preexist as certain instruments and as preparatory for intellect, which is the final perfection intended in the activity of nature.
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Non autem omnibus quibus inest aliquod praedictorum, inest et ratio; et quia imaginatio videtur habere quamdam affinitatem ad intellectum, cum supra dictum sit quod intellectus vel est phantasia quaedam vel non sine phantasia, addit de imaginatione et dicit quod quibusdam animalibus non solum non inest intellectus, sed non etiam imaginatio.
But not all which have these other powers also have reason. And because of the affinity between intellect and imagination—as he said above, intellect either is, or never occurs without, a certain imagination (403a5)—he adds this about imagination, saying that some animals lack not only intellect but even imagination.1
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302. Videtur tamen hoc esse contrarium ei quod supra dixerat quod, si pars decisa habet sensum et appetitum, quod habet etiam phantasiam (si tamen phantasia est idem cum imaginatione, ut videtur).
302. Yet this might seem to contradict a previous remark of his, that if a part cut from an animal retains sensation and appetite, it retains also imagination—if phantasia is the same thing as imagination, as seems likely.1
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Dicendum est igitur quod animalia imperfecta, ut in III dicetur, habent quidem phantasiam, sed indeterminate, quia scilicet motus phantasiae non remanet in eis post apprehensionem sensus; in animalibus autem perfectis remanet motus phantasiae etiam abeuntibus sensibilibus. Et secundum hoc dicitur hic quod imaginatio non adest omnibus animalibus.
We must, therefore, say that the imperfect animals have indeed a sort of imagination, but indeterminately, as will be shown in book 3;1 that is, the motion of imagining does not, in them, outlast the apprehension of sensation; in the perfect animals, however, the motion of imagination remains even when the sensible things are gone. And in this sense he says here that imagination is not present in all animals.
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Sed quaedam animalia sunt quae hac sola vivunt, carentia scilicet intellectu et directa in suis operationibus per imaginationem sicut nos dirigimur per intellectum. Et licet non omnibus animalibus insit imaginatio sicut nec intellectus, tamen de intellectu speculativo est alia ratio quam de imaginatione: differunt enim adinvicem, ut infra patebit. Manifestum est igitur quod de unaquaque parte animae propriissime dicitur haec definitio quae assignata est de anima.
Some animals, lacking intellect, live by this alone (414b33), by imagination, being directed in their activities by their imagination just as we are directed by our intellect. And though certain other animals lack both imagination and intellect, nevertheless the account of the speculative intellect is not the same as that of the imagination, as we shall see.1 Clearly, then (415a12), this definition of the soul which has been given is said most properly for each part of the soul.
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303. Deinde cum dicit: necessarium autem etc., ostendit quo ordine determinandum sit de partibus animae et assignat ordinem quantum ad duo.
303. Then, at it is necessary (415a14), he shows the order to be followed in examining the parts of soul. And he does so with regard to two things.
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Primo quantum ad hoc quod ille qui debet de partibus animae perscrutari primo debet accipere unumquodque horum quid est, et postea debet considerare de habitis, id est consequentibus partibus, et de aliis quae sunt consideranda circa partes animae et circa ipsa animata, sicut de organis et de aliis huiusmodi. Et iste ordo necessarius est, quia, si simul de omnibus determinaretur, esset confusa doctrina.
First, with respect to one’s needing to study the parts of the soul, the first thing to do is to take up what each of these is and only then should one consider their habits, that is, whatever other parts of soul derive from them, and other matters pertaining to the soul’s parts and the very things that are ensouled, like the organs and things of that kind. And this order is necessary, because it would be confusing to learn if everything were discussed at once.
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304. Secundum tangit ibi: si autem oportet dicere etc., dicens quod, si oportet de aliqua parte animae dicere quid est, scilicet quid est intellectivum aut sensitivum aut vegetativum, prius oportet dicere de actibus, scilicet quid sit intelligere et quid sentire, et hoc ideo quia secundum rationem definitivam, actus et operationes sunt priores potentiis. Potentia enim secundum hoc ipsum quod est importat habitudinem quamdam ad actum: est enim principium agendi vel patiendi; unde oportet quod actus ponantur in definitionibus potentiarum. Et, si ita se habet circa ordinem actus et potentiae, et actibus adhuc sunt priora opposita, id est obiecta.
304. Then, at but if (415a16), he considers the second, saying that, if one is to say of any part of the soul what each of them is—that is, the intellectual power or the sensitive or the vegetative—one must first say this of their acts, for example, what it is to understand and what it is to sense; because in account, acts and activities are prior to potencies. For a potency in virtue of its very self brings in a certain orientation to act, for it is a principle of acting or of being acted upon; this is why acts must be placed in the definitions of potencies. And if this is the case with the order of act and potency, the objects are before even the acts.
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305. Species enim actuum et operationum sumuntur secundum ordinem ad obiecta. Omnis enim animae operatio vel est actus potentiae activae vel passivae.
305. For the species of acts and activities are taken in reference to their objects. For every activity of the soul is the act of either an active potency or a passive potency.
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Obiecta quidem potentiarum passivarum comparantur ad operationes earum ut activa, quia reducunt potentias in actum, sicut visibile visum et omne sensibile sensum.
Now, the objects of passive potentialities stand to their activities as the agents, since they bring the potencies to act; for example, visible objects do so for sight, as does every sensible for its sense.
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Obiecta vero potentiarum activarum comparantur ad operationes ipsarum ut fines; obiecta enim potentiarum activarum sunt operata ipsarum, manifestum est autem quod, in quibuscumque praeter operationes sunt aliqua operata, quod operata sunt fines operationum, ut dicitur in I Ethicorum, sicut domus quae aedificatur est finis aedificationis.
But the objects of the active capacities stand to their activities themselves as ends, for the objects of active potencies are their works. It is obvious, however, that whenever activities bring about anything besides the activities themselves, the things brought about are the ends of the activities, as is said in Ethics 1; for example, a house is the end of building.1
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Manifestum est igitur quod omne obiectum comparatur ad operationem animae vel ut activum vel ut finis. Ex utroque autem specificatur operatio: manifestum est enim quod diversa activa secundum speciem habent operationes specie differentes, sicut calefactio est a calore et infrigidatio a frigore; similiter etiam ex termino et fine specificatur operatio, sicut sanatio et aegrotatio differunt specie secundum differentiam sanitatis et aegritudinis. Sic igitur obiecta sunt priora operationibus animae in via definiendi.
Hence, all the objects of the soul’s activities are compared to the soul’s activities as either agents or ends; and in both respects they specify those activities. For, obviously, specifically diverse agents have specifically diverse activities—as heat heats and cold chills. So too, the terminus and end of activity specifies the activity: for example, becoming well or becoming ill differ in species because health differs from illness. Thus, in the path of seeking definitions, the objects of the soul’s activities are before these activities.
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306. Unde et prius oportebit determinare de obiectis quam de actibus propter eamdem causam propter quam et de actibus prius determinatur quam de potentiis; obiecta autem sunt sicut alimentum respectu vegetativi et sensibile respectu sensus et intelligibile respectu intellectus.
306. Therefore, it will be necessary to determine their objects before the activities for the same reason that leads us to determine the activities before the potencies. The objects in question are such things as food and sensible being and intelligible being, with respect to the vegetative, sensitive, and intellectual powers, respectively.
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307. Sed sciendum est quod ex obiectis diversis non diversificantur actus et potentiae animae nisi quando fuerit differentia obiectorum inquantum sunt obiecta, id est secundum rationem formalem obiecti, sicut visibile ab audibili. Si autem servetur eadem ratio obiecti, quaecumque alia diversitas non inducit diversitatem actuum secundum speciem et potentiae: eiusdem enim potentiae est videre hominem coloratum et lapidem coloratum, quia haec diversitas per accidens se habet in obiecto inquantum est obiectum.
307. But note that the acts and powers of soul are not distinguished with respect to distinct objects except precisely insofar as these are objects, that is, according to the formal account of the object, as the visible differs from the audible. But if the same account of object is present, then it does not matter what other differences there may be; they will not affect the species of activity or potency. For by the same power we see a colored man and a colored stone; the difference is merely accidental to the object as object.
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308. Sciendum est autem quod intellectus possibilis noster est in potentia tantum in ordine intelligibilium, fit autem actu per formam a phantasmatibus abstractam; nihil autem cognoscitur nisi secundum quod est actu; unde intellectus possibilis noster cognoscit se ipsum per speciem intelligibilem, ut in III habebitur, non autem intuendo essentiam suam directe. Et ideo oportet quod in cognitione animae procedamus ab his quae sunt magis extrinseca, a quibus abstrahuntur species intelligibiles, per quas intellectus intelligit se ipsum, ut scilicet per obiecta cognoscamus actus et per actus potentias et per potentias essentiam animae. Si autem directe essentiam suam cognosceret anima per se ipsam, esset contrarius ordo observandus in animae cognitione, quia quanto aliquid esset propinquius essentiae animae, tanto prius cognosceretur ab ea.
308. Now, it should be known that our potential intellect is in potency only in the order of intelligibles, but it comes into act through a form abstracted from phantasms. Nothing is known except in the degree that it is actual; hence, our potential intellect knows its very self only through an intelligible species (as will be explained in book 3) and not by directly intuiting its own essence.1 This is why in the process of knowing the soul we must proceed from quite exterior things, from which intelligible species are abstracted, in which it perceives itself; so we proceed through objects to acts, through acts to powers, and through powers to the essence of the soul. But if the soul could know its own essence directly through its very self, a contrary order would need to be followed in knowing the soul; for the closer anything might be to the soul’s essence, so in a prior way would it be known by it.
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L. 7 (B.4, 415a22–415b28)The vegetative principle: three senses of the soul’s causality
De ipso alimento, ac generatione, quae ad vegetativam animae partem, ut obiectum et opus spectant, dicendum esse ostendit; hinc probat animam ipsam omnium viventium causam esse in triplici causarum genere; videlicet, formae, finis et efficientis
The vegetative principle: three senses of the soul’s causality
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Quare primum de alimento et generatione dicendum est: vegetativa enim anima et aliis inest prima. Et maxime communis potentia est animae, secundum quam inest vivere omnibus. Cuius sunt opera generare et alimento uti.
Whence we must first speak of food and generation. For the vegetative soul is present in others and is first; and it is the most common power of the soul, by which life is present in all of them. Its activities are reproduction and the use of food.
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Naturalissimum enim operum viventibus est, quaecumque perfecta et non orbata aut generationem spontaneam habent, facere alterum quale ipsum, animal quidem animal, planta autem plantam, quatinus ipso semper et divino et inmortali participent secundum quod possunt. Omnia enim illud appetunt et illius causa agunt quaecumque agunt secundum naturam.
For the most natural of the works of living beings, whatever ones are complete and not defective or spontaneously generated, is to produce others like themselves: an animal an animal, and a plant a plant. To this extent they participate, as far as they are able, in being always, and the immortal, and the divine. For all things seek this, doing whatever things they do by nature for the sake of this.
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Id autem quod cuius causa fit, dupliciter est: hoc quidem cuius, illud vero quo.
Now, that for the sake of which anything takes place is twofold: one, the end of which; the other, the end by which.
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Quoniam igitur communicare non possunt ipso semper et divino continuatione, propter id quod nihil contingit corruptibilium idem et unum numero permanere, secundum quod potest participare unumquodque, sic communicat, hoc quidem magis, illud vero minus, et permanet non idem, sed ut idem, numero quidem non unum, specie autem unum.
Since, then, they cannot share by a continuous being in the divine and everlasting (since nothing corruptible remains forever numerically one and the same), each shares in this as far as it is able to participate in it, but one does so more, and another less. And thus it endures, not the same, but as the same; one indeed but in species, not numerically.
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Est autem anima viventis corporis causa et principium. Haec autem multipliciter dicuntur, at tamen anima secundum determinatos tres modos causa dicitur: et enim unde motus ipsa est, et cuius causa, et sicut substantia animatorum corporum anima causa.
The soul is the cause and principle of the living body. Now, these words can be used in many ways. The soul, however, is a cause in three established modes: for the soul is that whence comes movement; that for the sake of which; and as the substance of ensouled bodies.
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Quod quidem igitur sit sicut substantia, manifestum est. Causa enim ipsius esse omnibus substantia est, vivere autem viventibus est esse, causa autem et principium horum anima.
That it is as the substance, then, is evident. For in all things, the substance is the cause of existence itself. In things that live, however, to live is to be, and the cause and principle of these things is the soul.
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Amplius autem eius quod potentia ratio, actus est.
Further, of that which is in potency, the act is the account.
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Manifestum autem est quod etiam cuius gratia anima causa. Sicut enim intellectus gratia huius facit, eodem modo et natura, et hoc est ipsius finis. Huiusmodi autem in animalibus anima et secundum naturam. Omnia enim physica corpora animae instrumenta, sicut animalium, sic et plantarum, tanquam gratia animae existentia. Dupliciter autem dicitur quod cuius causa, et quod cuius et quod quo.
It is manifest, however, that the soul is also a cause for the sake of which. For nature operates for a purpose, in the same way as intellect; and this is its end. Such is the soul in living things as well according to nature. For all natural bodies are instruments of the soul, whether of animals or of plants; they exist as for the sake of the soul. But “for the sake of which” is a phrase used in two ways, as “that of which,” and “that by which.”
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At vero et unde primum qui secundum locum motus, anima est. Non omnibus autem viventibus inest potentia haec. Est autem et alteratio et augmentum secundum animam; sensus enim quaedam alteratio esse videtur, nihil autem sentit quod non habet animam. Similiter autem et de augmenta et decremento se habet: nihil enim detrimentum patitur neque augmentatur physice nisi alitum, alitur autem nihil quod non communicet vita.
But the soul is also the principle whence comes local motion. Yet this power is not present in all living things. Both alteration and growth are, however, due to a soul, while sensation seems to be a certain alteration, but nothing senses unless it has a soul. The same holds good of growth and decrease, for nothing undergoes growth or decrease naturally unless it is nourished, and nothing is nourished which does not share in life.
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309. Quare primum de alimento etc. Postquam philosophus distinxit potentias animae ab invicem et ostendit quid et quo ordine de eis tractandum sit, hic secundum praetaxatum ordinem de eis determinat. Et dividitur in partes duas:
309. Whence we must first speak of food (415a22). Having distinguished the powers of soul from one another and explained how and in what order he means to discuss them, the Philosopher now treats of them in the order indicated. This he does in two stages.
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in prima determinat de singulis partibus animae quid sit unaquaeque;
In the first stage, he examines what each of them is, treating them one by one;
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in secunda assignat causam quare talem consequentiam habent ad invicem, ibi: vegetabilem quidem igitur animam etc., in ultimo capitulo libri.
Then, in the second stage, at all things that live and have soul (434a22; [847]), he explains why they stand in this order.1
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Prima dividitur in partes quatuor:
The former section divides into four parts:
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in prima determinat de vegetativo;
first, he treats the vegetative part;
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in secunda de sensitivo, ibi: determinatis autem his dicamus communiter de omni sensu etc.;
second, starting at these questions being settled (416b32; [350]), the sensitive part;
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in tertia de intellectivo, ibi: de parte autem animae qua cognoscit etc.;
third, at as to the part of the soul by which it knows (429a10; [671]), the intellectual;
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in quarta de motivo secundum locum, ibi: de movente autem quid forte animae sit etc.;
fourth, at we must now contemplate (432a18; [795]), local movement.
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de appetitivo autem non facit specialem tractatum, quia appetitivum non constituit aliquem specialem gradum viventium et quia simul cum motivo de eo determinatur.
To the appetitive part is assigned no special treatise, because it does not of itself constitute any special grade of life, and because it will be treated together with motion.
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Prima autem pars dividitur in duas:
The first treatise divides into two parts:
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in prima praemittit quaedam quae sunt necessaria ad cognitionem partis vegetativae;
the first part contains certain preliminaries to the study of the vegetative part;
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in secunda determinat de parte vegetativa, ibi: quoniam autem eadem potentia animae vegetativa et generativa etc.
the second, beginning at since the vegetative and generative (416a18; [333]), contains Aristotle’s conclusions on this matter.
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Prima dividitur in duas:
The former section again divides into two:
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in prima dicit de quo est intentio;
in the first, he states his intention;
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in secunda praemanifestat quaedam quae praeexiguntur ad cognitionem partis vegetativae, ibi: naturalissimum enim operum etc.
and in the second, at for the most natural (415a25), he gives an exposition of certain things which an understanding of the vegetative principle presupposes.
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310. Concludit ergo primo ex praedictis quod, cum dicendum sit primo de obiectis et actibus quam de potentiis et primo de prima potentia quam de consequentibus, quod primo dicendum est de alimento, quod est obiectum animae vegetativae, et de generatione, quae est actus eius; ideo primo dicendum est de obiecto et actu huius partis quam aliarum, quia ista pars est prima inter alias partes animae in subiectis in quibus invenitur cum aliis: est enim quasi fundamentum aliarum, sicut esse naturale ad quod pertinent operationes eius est fundamentum esse sensibilis et intelligibilis. Et alia ratio est quare prius de ea dicendum est, quia ipsa est communis omnibus viventibus (ipsa enim separatur ab aliis, sed aliae non separantur ab ea) et de communibus prius est agendum. Huius autem partis opera sunt generare et alimento uti, et ideo de istis primo agendum est.
310. First of all, then, he remarks that if, as we saw in the last chapter, objects and acts have to be defined before potencies, and the first potency ought to be defined before those which follow from it, we ought in consequence to begin by discussing food (415a22), the object with which the vegetative soul deals, and generation, which is this soul’s activity.1 Now, we should speak about the object and act of this part before the others because this part is the first among the parts of the soul in the subjects wherein it is found along with the others, for it is, as it were, the foundation of the others, just as natural existence, toward which its activities pertain, is the foundation of sensible and intelligible existence. Besides, this part of soul is common to all living things (for it is separated from the others, whereas the others cannot exist without it), and one should treat the common first. Its works, then, being reproduction and taking in nourishment, it is with these that we begin.
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311. Deinde cum dicit: naturalissimum enim etc., determinat quaedam quae praeexiguntur ad cognitionem partis vegetativae. Et dividitur in partes duas:
311. Next, when he says, for the most natural (415a25), he settles a few preliminary questions for understanding the vegetative part; and this is divided into two stages.
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in prima ostendit quod generare pertinet ad partem vegetativam, quod ideo necessarium fuit quia supra huic parti non attribuit generationem sed solum augmentum et decrementum;
In the first part, he shows that to generate one’s kind pertains to the vegetative part. It is necessary to show this because he had not yet done so, having spoken so far only of growth and decrease.
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in secunda ostendit quod opera potentiae vegetativae sint ab anima, quod ideo necessarium fuit quia, cum his operibus deserviant qualitates activae vel passivae, posset alicui videri quod essent a natura et non ab anima, et praecipue quia in plantis est vita occulta et latens; et hoc ibi: est autem anima viventis corporis etc.
In the second part, at the soul is the cause (415b7), he proves that a soul is the principle of all vegetative activities. It is necessary to show this, for although the active and passive qualities serve these activities, it could seem to someone that they come from mere nature, and not from a soul—especially since life in plants is hard to discern and is hidden.
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312. Primum ostendit tali ratione: omnis operatio quae naturaliter invenitur in omnibus viventibus pertinet ad potentiam vegetativam secundum quam primo vivere inest omnibus, ut dictum est; sed generare naturaliter inest omnibus viventibus; ergo pertinet ad potentiam vegetativam.
312. The first point is proved thus. All activities found to be natural to all living things pertain, as we have seen, to the vegetative power as the first and most common power of the soul, by which life is present in all of them (415a22); and reproduction is naturally present in all living things, so it pertains to the vegetative power.1
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Dicit ergo quod ideo generare est opus animae vegetativae quia inter alia opera est magis naturale omnibus viventibus; et dicitur esse naturalissimum, quia in hoc convenit etiam cum aliis rebus inanimatis, quae generationem habent licet alio modo: habent enim inanimata generationem ab extrinseco generante, sed viventia a principio intrinseco inquantum generantur ex semine quod proficit in rem vivam.
Indeed, he says reproduction is the work of the vegetative soul because, as he says, among all works it is quite natural to all living things; and he says it is most natural (415a25) because in this it in a certain way fits with other things that have no soul but do have generation, albeit in a different way; for non-souled things have generation due to some exterior generator, whereas living things are generated due to an interior principle, insofar as they are generated by a seed that progresses into a living thing.
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313. Sed ab ista generalitate viventium excipiuntur tria quibus hoc opus non competit:
313. There are, however, three exceptions to the general rule that living things reproduce their kind.
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primo illa quae sunt imperfecta, sicut pueri non generant (quod enim potest alterum facere tale quale ipsum est, in unoquoque genere perfectum est);
First, the incomplete; for children do not beget (for what is able to make another that is such as it is itself is complete in each genus).
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secundo excipiuntur illa quae patiuntur aliquem defectum alicuius principii naturalis, sicut sunt spadones et frigidi;
Second, those defective in some natural principle, such as the impotent and eunuchs.
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tertio animalia et plantae quae generantur sine semine ex putrefactione:
Third, the animals and plants that are generated without seed from putrefying matter.
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in his enim propter sui imperfectionem sufficit ad eorum productionem agens universale, scilicet virtus corporis caelestis, et materia disposita; in animalibus autem perfectis plura requiruntur principia, non enim agens universale sufficit, sed requiritur agens proprium univocum.
For in these, on account of their incompletion, a universal agent is enough for their production, that is, the power of the heavenly bodies and disposed matter. But in complete animals, more principles are required, for the universal agent is not sufficient; rather, a proper univocal agent is required.
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314. Dicit ergo quod viventia possunt facere alterum quale ipsum est quaecumque sunt perfecta, ad excludendum pueros, et non orbata, ad excludendum eunuchos et habentes similes defectus, aut quaecumque non habent generationem spontaneam, ad excludendum ea quae generantur ex putrefactione, quae dicuntur quasi sponte nasci quia producuntur ex terra sine semine, per illam similitudinem qua dicitur aliquis sponte facere illud ad quod extrinseco non inducitur.
314. Hence he says that living things can produce others like themselves, namely, whatever is complete (excluding children) and not defective (excluding eunuchs and such like) and whatever is not spontaneously generated (excluding things produced by putrefaction, which are said to come to be born, as it were, “spontaneously” because they spring up without seed, like the way someone is said to do spontaneously what he is not induced to do from something exterior to him).
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Sic autem intelligitur quod res viva facit alterum quale ipsum est, quia animal facit animal et planta plantam, et ulterius secundum speciem tale animal facit tale animal, ut homo generat hominem et oliva olivam.
And what he means by living things producing their like is that animals produce animals, and a plant a plant; and more precisely that each species produces its like, men producing men, and olive-trees, olive-trees.
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Ideo autem est naturale viventibus facere alterum tale quale ipsum est, ut semper participent secundum quod possunt divino et immortali, id est ut assimilentur ei secundum posse.
And the reason why living beings produce their like is that they may continuously participate, as far as they are able, in the imperishable and the divine, that is, that they may become as like to the divine as possible.
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315. Considerandum enim quod, sicut sunt diversi gradus perfectionis in aliquo uno et eodem quod exit de potentia in actum, ita etiam sunt diversi gradus perfectionis in diversis entibus; unde quanto aliquid fuerit magis perfectum, tanto perfectioribus magis assimilatur. Sicut igitur unumquodque quando fuerit exiens de potentia in actum, cum fuerit in potentia ordinatur ad actum et appetit ipsum naturaliter, et cum fuerit in actu minus perfecto desiderat actum perfectiorem, ita unumquodque, quod est in inferiori gradu rerum, desiderat assimilari superioribus quantum potest. Et hoc est quod subiungit quod omnia appetunt illud, scilicet assimilari divino et immortali, et illius causa agunt quaecumque naturaliter agunt.
315. For just as there are degrees of perfection in one and the same thing, inasmuch as it develops from potency into act, so there are more and less degrees of perfection in diverse beings; and therefore, the more perfect a given thing is, the more does it resemble the more perfect beings. Hence, while a thing is moving from potency to actuality, and as long as it is still in potency, it is ordered to the act and naturally has an appetite for it, and when it attains incomplete actuality, it still desires a more complete actuality; so in the same way, everything in a lower degree of reality desires to become as like as it can to the higher degrees. Hence he adds that all things seek this, that is, an assimilation to what is divine and imperishable, naturally doing whatever things they do for the sake of this.
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316. Sed intelligendum est quod id cuius causa agitur dicitur dupliciter:
316. But that for the sake of which something is done can mean two things:
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uno modo id cuius causa agitur directe, sicut sanitatis causa agit medicus;
in one way, the end for which one directly acts, as the doctor acts for the sake of health;
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alio modo sicut quo, quod potest intelligi dupliciter:
and in the other way, as the end by which; and this again may be taken in two ways.
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uno modo ut intelligamus quod finis dicitur etiam subiectum habens id cuius causa agitur, ut si dicamus quod finis medicinae est non tantum sanitas, sed corpus habens sanitatem;
For we might take the end to include also that subject in possession of that for the sake of which he acts, as when we say the end of medicine is not only health, but a body in possession of health.
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alio modo ut dicamus quod finis est non tantum principale intentum, sed etiam id quo illud adipiscimur, ut si dicamus quod finis medicinae est calefacere corpus, quia a calore habetur aequalitas complexionis quae est sanitas.
Alternately, we could mean by end not only what is principally intended but also that by which the end is attained; we might say, for example, that the end of medicine is to keep the body warm, because warmth preserves that harmony of elements in the body which is health.
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Sic igitur et hoc potest dici quod ipsum esse perpetuum est cuius causa agitur, vel res habens perpetuitatem cui naturalia intendunt assimilari per generationem, in quo scilicet est perpetuitas, vel etiam ipsa generatio qua perpetuitatem adipiscuntur.
So then, when it is said here that perpetuity of existence is that for the sake of which the activity occurs, we are referring either to something imperishable that natural things strive to resemble by generation, or even to the generation itself by which they attain this perpetuity.
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317. Quia igitur non possunt communicare inferiora viventia ipso esse sempiterno et divino per modum continuationis, id est ut maneant eadem numero, propter hoc quod nihil corruptibilium contingit idem et unum numero permanere semper, et cum necessitas corruptionis sit necessitas absoluta, utpote proveniens ex ipsa materia non ex fine, sequitur quod unumquodque communicet perpetuitate secundum quod potest, hoc quidem magis quod est diuturnius, illud vero minus quod est minus diuturnum, et tamen permanet semper per generationem, non idem simpliciter, sed ut idem, id est in simili secundum speciem; unde exponens quod dixerat, subdit quod non permanet unum numero, quod est esse idem simpliciter; sed permanet idem specie, quia unumquodque generat sibi simile secundum speciem.
317. Because, then, the lower forms of life are unable to share in the divine and everlasting by way of continuity, that is, such that they would remain numerically the same—since nothing corruptible remains numerically one and the same always, and because the necessity of corruption is an absolute necessity (insofar as it arises from the matter itself and not from the end)—it follows that each one can only share in it as far as it is able; the more lasting natures, more, the less lasting, less, and yet they always remain by way of reproduction; each remaining one and the same, not the same simply speaking, but as the same in the sense that one and the same species remains. Hence, he adds that it does not remain one thing numerically, which is to be the same thing simply speaking, but only in species; and this because each individual reproduces its like according to species.
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318. Deinde cum dicit: est autem anima viventis corporis etc., ostendit quod opera quae attribuuntur potentiae vegetativae sunt ab anima. Et circa hoc duo facit:
318. Then, at the soul is the cause (415b7), he shows the connection between the activities attributed to the vegetative power and the soul. And he does two things here:
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primo ostendit veritatem;
first, he shows the truth;
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secundo excludit errorem, ibi: Empedocles autem non bene dicit etc.
second, at Empedocles did not speak well (415b28; [324]), he points out an error.
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Circa primum duo facit.
The proof of the truth, again, has two parts.
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Primo proponit quod intendit et dicit quod anima est principium et causa viventis corporis. Et cum principium et causa dicatur multipliciter, anima dicitur tribus modis principium et causa viventis corporis:
First, he states his aim, asserting that the soul is the principle and cause of the living body (415b7); and since “principle” and “cause” are spoken of in many ways, he distinguishes three modes in which this proposition is to be taken.
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uno modo sicut unde est principium motus; alio modo sicut cuius causa, id est finis; tertio, sicut substantia, id est forma, animatorum corporum.
Soul, he says, is cause of the living body, in one way, as the principle of its movements; in another way, as that for the sake of which, or end; and in a third way, as the substance, that is, the form, of ensouled bodies.
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319. Secundo ibi: quod quidem igitur sit sicut substantia etc., probat quod supposuerat. Et primo quod anima sit causa viventis corporis ut forma, et hoc duplici ratione.
319. Second, at that it is (415b12), he proves his proposition; and first, with regard to soul being the cause of the living body as its form. Here he uses two arguments.
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Quarum prima talis est: illud est causa alicuius ut substantia, id est ut forma, quod est causa essendi, nam per formam unumquodque est actu; sed anima viventibus est causa essendi, per animam enim vivunt et ipsum vivere est esse eorum; ergo anima est causa viventis corporis ut forma.
First, the cause of anything as its substance, that is, form, is the same as the cause of its being, for everything has actual existence through its form. Now, it is the soul that is the cause of being for living things, for they live through their soul, and living itself is their existing. Hence the soul causes the living body as its form.
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320. Secundam rationem ponit ibi: amplius autem eius etc., quae talis est: id quod est actus alicuius est ratio et forma eius quod est in potentia; sed anima est actus corporis viventis, ut ex superioribus patet; ergo anima est ratio et forma viventis corporis.
320. Then he makes a second argument, at further (415b14). The actuality of anything is the account and form of the thing that is in potency. But the soul, as we have seen, is the living body’s actuality.1 Therefore it is the form and account of the living body.
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321. Secundo ibi: manifestum autem est quod etiam cuius gratia etc., ostendit quod anima est causa ut finis. Et quod sit causa ut finis viventium corporum, sic ostendit: sicut enim intellectus operatur propter finem, ita et natura, ut probatur in II Physicorum; sed intellectus in his quae fiunt per artem materiam ordinat et disponit propter formam; ergo et natura; cum igitur anima sit forma viventis corporis, sequitur quod sit finis eius.
321. Next, at it is manifest (415b15), he shows that the soul is a final cause of living bodies. And that it is a cause as the end of living bodies he says at: for nature . . . like intellect, acts for the sake of an end, as was shown in Physics 2.1 But the intellect, in things that occur through art, orders and arranges materials for the sake of a form. So also, then, does nature. If, then, the soul is the living body’s form, it must also be its end.
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322. Et ulterius, non solum anima est finis viventium corporum, sed etiam omnium naturalium corporum in istis inferioribus. Quod sic probat: videmus enim quod omnia naturalia corpora sunt quasi instrumenta animae, non solum in animalibus, sed etiam in plantis. Videmus enim quod homines utuntur ad sui utilitatem animalibus et plantis et rebus inanimatis, animalia vero plantis et rebus inanimatis, plantae autem rebus inanimatis, inquantum scilicet alimentum et iuvamentum ab eis accipiunt; secundum autem quod agitur unumquodque in rerum natura, ita natum est agi; unde videtur quod omnia corpora inanimata sint instrumenta animatorum et sint propter ipsa et etiam animata minus perfecta sint propter animata magis perfecta. Et consequenter distinguit id cuius causa est, sicut et supra.
322. Moreover, the soul is the end not only of living bodies but also of all lower natural bodies. He proves this as follows. For we see that all natural bodies are, as it were, instruments of the soul—not only of animals’ souls but of plants’ souls as well. For we see men turn to their own purposes both animals and plants and non-souled things; and animals make use of plants and non-souled things; and plants of the non-souled things insofar as they take nourishment and support from them. But as each thing acts in the nature of things, so it is naturally apt to act; whence it seems that all non-souled bodies are instruments of ensouled things and exist for their sake, and the less complete ensouled things exist for the more complete. After this, he distinguishes “for the sake of which” into the two aspects which have already been explained.
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323. Tertio ibi: at vero et unde primum etc., ostendit quod anima est principium moventis corporis sicut unde motus. Et utitur quasi tali ratione: omnis forma corporis naturalis est principium motus proprii illius corporis, sicut forma ignis est principium motus eius; sed quidam motus sunt proprii rebus viventibus, scilicet motus localis, quo animalia movent seipsa motu processivo secundum locum, licet hoc non insit omnibus viventibus, et similiter sentire est alteratio quaedam et hoc non inest nisi habentibus animam, item motus augmenti et decrementi non inest nisi illis quae aluntur et nihil alitur nisi habens animam; ergo oportet quod anima sit principium omnium istorum motuum.
323. Third, at but the soul is also (415b21), he shows that the soul is the principle of movement in the body as that whence the motion originates. He uses the following reasoning: the form of every natural body is a principle of that body’s proper movement—for example, the form of fire is the principle of fire’s movement. Now, certain movements are proper to living things, such as the local motion whereby animals move themselves about from place to place, though this, to be sure, is not found in all living things. Similarly, sensation is a certain alteration and it is found only in things that have a soul. So too with growth and decrease; these movements imply the use of food and nothing self-nourishes except what has a soul. The soul, then, is the principle of all these movements.
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L. 8 (B.4, 415b28–416a18)The vegetative principle: two errors refuted
Duas minus recte philosophantium sententias refellit: unam qua Empedocles viventium augmentum decrementumque terrae ac igni attribuebat; alteram, qua tantum igni, hoc ipsum, non autem animae, attribuedum, ut par erat, existimabat
The vegetative principle: two errors refuted
DeAn.L8
Empedocles autem non bene dixit hoc addens, augmentum accidere plantis deorsum quidem radices mittentibus propter id quod terra sic fertur secundum naturam, sursum autem propter ignem similiter.
Empedocles did not speak well here, adding that growth occurs in plants by their sending a root downwards because earth by nature is carried below, and also upwards because of fire.
DeAn.L8
Neque enim sursum et deorsum bene accipit. Non enim idem omnibus sursum et deorsum et omni, sed sicut caput animalium, sic radices plantarum, si congruit instrumenta dicere altera et eadem operibus.
Nor did he rightly understand up and down. For these are not the same for all things as for the universe; but roots of plants are like the head in animals, if it is permissible to say that organs are the same or different based on their works.
DeAn.L8
Ad haec autem quid est continens in contraria quae feruntur ignem et terram? Distrahentur enim, nisi aliquid sit prohibens; si vero erit, hoc est anima, et causa augmenti et alimenti.
Besides, what holds fire and earth together if they are borne in contrary directions? They must come apart if there is nothing to prevent this. But if there is such a thing, it must be the soul and be also the cause of growth and nourishment.
DeAn.L8
Videtur autem quibusdam ignis natura simpliciter causa augmenti et alimenti esse. Et namque ipsum videtur solum corporum et elementorum quod alitur et augmentatur, unde et in plantis et in animalibus putabit utique quis hoc esse quod operatur.
Now, it seems to some that the nature of fire is simply speaking the cause of growth and nutrition; for it certainly seems to be the only one of the bodies and elements that is nourished and grows. Whence one will think this that is active in plants and animals.
DeAn.L8
Hoc autem concausa quidem quodam modo est, non tamen simpliciter causa, sed magis anima. Ignis enim augmentum in infinitum est, quousque fuerit combustibile, natura autem constantium omnium terminus est et ratio et magnitudinis et augmenti; haec autem animae, sed non ignis, et rationis magis quam materiae.
It is in a certain way a joint cause, but not the cause simply speaking; rather, the soul is. For the growth of fire is infinite so long as there is anything combustible. But there are limitations to all things that are composed by nature, and a proportion of both their size and their growth. And this belongs to the soul, not to fire, and to the proportion more than to matter.
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324. Empedocles autem non bene dixit etc. Superius ostendit philosophus quod opera quae attribuuntur potentiae vegetativae sunt ab anima, nunc excludit quosdam errores contra determinatam veritatem. Et dividitur in partes duas secundum duos errores quos removet;
324. Empedocles did not speak well (415b28). The Philosopher has just shown that the activities we attribute to the vegetative power have their origin in the soul.1 He now proceeds to refute two errors on this subject, which he deals with respectively in two sections;
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secunda pars incipit ibi: videtur autem quibusdam.
the second of which begins at now, it seems to some that the nature of fire (416a9; [329]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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primo ponit errorem,
First, he states the error;
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secundo improbat ipsum, ibi: neque enim sursum et deorsum.
and second, at nor did he understand (416a2; [325]), he attacks it.
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Sciendum est igitur circa primum quod, sicut Empedocles alias utilitates quae in rebus viventibus proveniunt non dixit procedere ex intentione naturae, sed ex necessitate materiae, puta quod pedes animalium sic sunt dispositi non ut sint utiles ad gressum, sed quia sic contingit materiam dispositam fuisse circa partes, ita etiam et augmentum viventium non attribuit animae, sed motui gravium et levium; videbat enim quod viventia augentur in diversas partes, puta sursum et deorsum, quod apparet manifeste in plantis, quae radices deorsum mittunt et rami sursum elevantur; dicebat igitur quod augmentum plantarum in deorsum causatur ex motu terrae quae est in compositione plantae et naturaliter deorsum fertur propter sui gravitatem, augmentum autem in sursum causatur ex motu ignis qui propter sui levitatem naturaliter sursum fertur.
Regarding the error itself, we should note that just as Empedocles explained other cases of purposeful arrangement in living things not by the intention of nature but from the necessity of matter—for example, he said that animals had the sort of feet they have, not in order to help them to walk, but because the matter of that part of their bodies happened to be disposed in that sort of way—so also the growth of living things he ascribed not to the soul but merely to the motion of light and heavy bodies. Observing that living things increase their size in different directions, for example, up and down—as is evident in plants, which thrust their roots down and their branches up—he said that the downward growth of plants is caused by the motion of earth in their composition, which is heavy and therefore naturally tends downwards, while their upward growth is caused by the motion of fire, which, being light, naturally tends upwards.
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325. Deinde cum dicit: neque enim sursum etc., reprobat praedictam opinionem dupliciter.
325. Aristotle, then, at nor did he (416a2), brings two arguments against this opinion of Empedocles.
DeAn.L8
Et primo quidem per hoc quod non bene accipit sursum et deorsum. Ad cuius evidentiam sciendum est quod sursum et deorsum et aliae positionum differentiae, scilicet ante et retro, dextrum et sinistrum, in quibusdam quidem distinguuntur secundum naturam, in quibusdam vero solum positione quoad nos. In quibus enim sunt determinatae partes quae sunt naturaliter principia aliquorum motuum, in his distinguuntur praedictae positionum differentiae secundum naturam;
First, he says that Empedocles did not understand up and down. To see what he means here, we should note that up and down and the other differences of position (before and behind, right and left) are differentiated in some things naturally, while in others they are merely relative to ourselves. For in things that have determinate parts as the natural principles of their various movements, the differences of these positions are based on nature itself.
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sicut in universo ad cuius medium naturaliter feruntur gravia, ad circumferentiam naturaliter feruntur levia, unde in universo sursum et deorsum naturaliter distinguuntur et sursum dicitur locus ad quem feruntur levia, deorsum sive medium ad quem feruntur naturaliter gravia; in viventibus etiam et mortalibus secundum motum augmenti et decrementi determinantur sursum et deorsum (nam sursum dicitur illa pars unde viventia alimentum accipiunt, deorsum autem pars opposita unde superfluitates emittuntur),
Just as in the universe, heavy things are naturally carried to its middle, and light things are naturally carried to its circumference, so in the universe the up and the down are distinguished naturally, and the place to which light things are borne is called “up,” and that to which heavy things are naturally borne is called “down,” or “the middle.” And in living and mortal things as well, up and down are determined according to the motions of growth and decrease; for the upper is that part which takes in food, and the lower is the opposite part, which ejects superfluities.
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326. ante vero et retro determinatur in quibusdam viventibus secundum sensum, dextrum et sinistrum secundum motum localem. In his vero in quibus non est aliqua determinata pars principium aut terminus alicuius motus, in eis non determinantur positionum differentiae secundum naturam, sed solum positione quoad nos, sicut in rebus inanimatis; unde eadem columna dicitur sinistra et dextra secundum quod est homini dextra vel sinistra. In quibusdam autem viventium in quibus determinatur secundum naturam sursum et deorsum, eodem modo determinantur sicut in universo, ut in homine cuius superior pars, scilicet caput, est versus sursum universi, inferior autem est versus deorsum ipsius; in plantis autem est e converso, nam radices plantarum sunt proportionabiles capiti; ad eumdem enim actum ordinantur (nam sicut animalia cibum accipiunt ore quod est in capite, ita plantae radicibus), instrumenta autem dicuntur eadem et altera sive similia et dissimilia ex operibus, quae sunt fines eorum, unde radices plantarum sunt similes capitibus animalium; et tamen sunt versum deorsum, unde modo contrario se habet sursum et deorsum in plantis et in universo; in brutis autem animalibus non eodem modo se habet, quia eorum capita non se habent versus sursum universi neque versus deorsum ipsius. Hoc est ergo quod dicit quod sursum et deorsum non est idem omnibus, scilicet viventibus, et omni, id est universo.
326. Again, in some animals, before and behind are determined in relation to their senses, and the right and the left by their movements in space. But things that have no determinate part that is a principle or term of movement also have no differences of position naturally determined within them; these are fixed simply by the thing’s position relative to us. So is it with things without soul; the same pillar is said to be on the right or the left according as it is to the right or left of a man. Now, in certain living things, the natural upper and lower parts are determined in the same way as in the universe. It is so in man, whose upper part is turned toward the top of the universe and his lower part toward its bottom. But the reverse is found in plants, whose roots correspond to the head, for they are ordered to the same act (for as animals take in food by their mouths, which is in the head, so do plants by their roots). Now, organs are said to be the same or different if their works are so, which are their ends; hence the roots of plants are like the heads of animals, although they point downwards. Up and down, then, mean opposite things in plants and in the universe. But brute animals are different; their heads are turned neither up nor down in relation to the universe. This is what he means when he says that up and down are not the same for all things (that is, living things) as they are for the universe, that is, the cosmos.
DeAn.L8
327. Sed Empedocles sic accipit sursum et deorsum ac si eodem modo esset in omnibus viventibus et in universo: si enim motus augmenti, secundum quem determinatur sursum et deorsum in viventibus, sit secundum motum gravium et levium secundum quem determinatur sursum et deorsum in universo, sequetur quod eodem modo sit sursum et deorsum in omnibus viventibus et in universo; et ideo etiam ipse in plantis augmentum radicum dicit esse deorsum.
327. But Empedocles took up and down to be the same for all living things and for the universe. For if the movement of growth, according to which the upper and lower are determined in living beings, followed the movements of the heavy and the light, according to which the same relations are determined for the cosmos as a whole, then up and down would mean the same in all living beings and in the cosmos. This is what led Empedocles to say that the roots of plants grew downwards.
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328. Secundo ibi: ad haec autem quid est continens etc., reprobat praedictam positionem alio modo. Ad cuius evidentiam sciendum est quod, cum elementa non sint actu in mixto, sed virtute, non habet in eo quodlibet elementum seorsum proprium motum, sed totum mixtum movetur motu elementi praedominantis in ipso. Si autem quodlibet elementum haberet proprium motum, ut Empedocles ponere videbatur, cum naturalis motus elementorum sit ad contraria loca, sequeretur quod totaliter ab invicem separarentur nisi esset aliquid continens elementa quod non sineret totaliter abscedere elementa ab invicem; illud autem quod continet elementa ne totaliter ab invicem segregentur maxime videtur esse causa augmenti et alimenti,
328. The second argument against Empedocles begins at besides, what holds (416a6). To understand it, we should note that, because the elements in a mixture are present not actually, but by their power, or virtually, each of the elements does not have its proper movement. Rather, the whole mixture is moved with the movement of the element that predominates in it. If each, as Empedocles seems to have thought, retained its own proper movement, then, since the elements have natural movements in contrary directions, it follows that they would become totally separated from one another, unless something containing the elements prevented them from totally drifting apart. But what contains the elements so that they are not totally separated seems to be the chief cause of growth and nourishment.
DeAn.L8
sed augmentum secundum diversas partes contingit ex diversis motibus elementorum: non enim posset imaginari qualiter esset augmentum, elementis in contraria motis, nisi per hoc quod manent ad invicem coniuncta, quia si totaliter separarentur esset divisio non augmentum; illud igitur principaliter est causa augmenti quod continet elementa ne totaliter ab invicem separentur; hoc autem est anima in rebus viventibus; anima igitur est principium augmenti.
But the increase of the body in its various parts is due to diverse motions of the elements. For one cannot imagine how there could be growth when the elements move in contrary directions unless the elements remain conjoined; for if they became separated, there would be division, not growth. Therefore in living things, that which contains the elements so that they are not entirely separated from each other is principally the cause of growth; but in living things, this is the soul, so the soul is the principle of their growth.
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329. Deinde cum dicit: videtur autem quibusdam etc., ponit aliam positionem. Et circa hoc duo facit:
329. Next, at now, it seems to some (416a9), he states another theory. And concerning this he does two things.
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primo ponit eam;
First, he states it.
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secundo improbat, ibi: hoc autem concausa etc.
Second, at it is indeed (416a13; [331]), he disproves it.
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Sciendum est autem quod haec opinio differt in hoc a prima quod prima attribuebat causam augmenti et alimenti diversis elementis, scilicet igni et terrae, haec autem attribuit eorum causam igni tantum.
Unlike the theory of Empedocles, which puts the cause of growth and nourishment in various elements, namely, fire and earth, this theory ascribes the cause only to fire.
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330. Et movebantur ad hoc hac ratione, quia illud videtur esse principium alicuius passionis vel motus in aliquo quod secundum se habet illam passionem vel motum, sicut ignis, qui secundum se calidus, est causa caloris in rebus mixtis, et terra, quae secundum se est gravis, est causa gravitatis in eis; inter autem elementa videtur solus ignis nutriri et augeri, si superficialiter de nutrimento et augmento loquamur; solus igitur ignis videtur esse faciens augmentum et alimentum in plantis et animalibus. Utrum vero ignis nutriatur et augeatur, inferius erit manifestum.
330. The reason given is that the principle of anything’s passions or motion would appear to be whatever had such passions or motions in virtue of itself—for example, fire, being hot in virtue of itself, is the cause of heat in compound things, and earth, which is heavy in virtue of itself, is the cause of heaviness in these things. Now, of the elements, fire alone seems to feed itself and to grow, if we take these terms in a superficial sense. Therefore, fire alone would seem to cause growth and nutrition in plants and animals (416a9). But whether fire really feeds itself and grows will be made clear later.1
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331. Deinde cum dicit: hoc autem concausa etc., improbat praedictam positionem. Sciendum tamen est quod praedicta positio aliquid habet veritatis:
331. Then, at it is indeed (416a13), he disproves the aforementioned position. But it should be known that this position has some truth to it.
DeAn.L8
necesse est enim omne alimentum decoqui, quod quidem fit per ignem; unde ignis aliquo modo operatur ad alimentum et per consequens ad augmentum, non quidem sicut agens principale (hoc enim est animae), sed sicut agens secundarium et instrumentale. Et ideo dicit quod ignis quodammodo concausa est augmenti et alimenti, sicut instrumentum concausa est principalis agentis, non tamen est simpliciter causa ut principale agens, sed magis hoc modo causa est anima. Quod sic probat.
For all food has to be cooked, and this does occur through fire, so fire does act in a way for the sake of nutrition, and consequently for the sake of growth, not indeed as the principal agent (for the soul is this (416a13)) but as a secondary, instrumental agent. He says, then, that fire is in a certain way a joint cause of growth and nourishment as an instrument is a joint cause with the principal agent. But it is not the cause simply speaking, as the principal agent; rather, the soul is the cause in this way, as he goes on to show.
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332. Illud est principale in qualibet actione a quo imponitur terminus et ratio ei quod fit, sicut patet in artificialibus quod terminus et ratio arcae vel domui non imponitur ab instrumentis, sed ab ipsa arte;
332. The principal agent in any action is that which imposes the limit and proportion upon what is done; this is clear in artificial things, like boxes or houses: the limit and proportion is fixed, not by the instruments used in the work, but by the art itself.
DeAn.L8
nam instrumenta se habent differenter ut cooperentur ad hanc formam et quantitatem, vel aliam; serra enim quantum est de se apta est ad secandum lignum secundum quod competit et ostio et scamno et domui et in quacumque quantitate, sed quod sic secetur lignum quod sit aptum ad talem formam et ad talem quantitatem, est ex virtute artis.
For the instruments are indifferent as to whether they are used to produce a thing of this shape and quantity or of that. A saw, as such, can be used to cut wood for a door or a bench or a house, and in any quantity you please; and if it cuts wood in this or that particular shape and quantity, this is due to the power of the art.
DeAn.L8
Manifestum est autem quod in omnibus quae sunt secundum naturam est certus terminus et determinata ratio magnitudinis et augmenti; sicut enim cuilibet speciei debentur aliqua accidentia propria, ita et propria quantitas, licet cum aliqua latitudine propter diversitatem materiae et alias causas individuales (non enim omnes homines sunt unius quantitatis, sed tamen est aliqua quantitas <tam> magna ultra quam species humana non porrigitur et alia quantitas tam parva infra quam homo non invenitur). Illud igitur quod est causa determinationis magnitudinis et augmenti est principalis causa augmenti.
Now, in nature, things obviously have limitations and some determinate proportion of both their size and their growth (416a13). For as each species of thing requires its own proper accidents, so it needs its own quantity, though with some margin on account of material differences and other individual causes (for men are not all the same size, but nevertheless, there is some quantity so great that the human species cannot be extended beyond it, and some quantity so small that man cannot be found beneath it). Therefore, the cause of this determination of magnitude and growth is the principal cause of growth.
DeAn.L8
Hoc autem non est ignis: manifestum est enim quod ignis augmentum non est usque ad determinatam quantitatem, sed in infinitum extenditur, si in infinitum materia combustibilis inveniatur. Manifestum est igitur quod ignis non est principale agens in augmento et alimento, sed magis anima. Et hoc rationabiliter accidit, quia determinatio quantitatis in rebus naturalibus est ex forma, quae est principium speciei, magis quam ex materia, anima autem comparatur ad elementa quae sunt in corpore vivente sicut forma ad materiam, magis igitur terminus et ratio magnitudinis et augmenti est ab anima quam ab igne.
But this cannot be fire, because the growth of fire is not toward a determinate quantity; rather, it would spread to infinity if an infinite amount of combustible matter were available. Clearly, then, fire is not the principal agent of growth and nutrition; this belongs to the soul. And this is reasonable enough, for the determination of quantity in natural things is from the form—which is the principle of the species—more than from the matter. Now, the soul of a living body is to the elements it contains as form is to matter; therefore the limitations and proportion of both their size and their growth is more from the soul than from the fire.
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L. 9 (B.4, 416a18–416b31)The vegetative principle: nutrition
Alimentum quomodo ei quod alitur, sit contrarium, et quidnam sit ostendit: quo item pacto, nutritioni, augmento, et generationi animatorum conveniat exponit, ex quo animae vegetabilis definitionem deducit: qua item demum ratione alimentum sit ipsius nutritionis instrumentum declarat
The vegetative principle: nutrition
DeAn.L9
Quoniam autem eadem potentia animae vegetativa et generativa, de alimento necessarium est determinare primum: separatur enim ab aliis potentiis opere hoc.
Since the vegetative and generative powers of the soul are the same power, it is first necessary to fix the nature of food. For it is by this activity that this power is distinguished from the others.
DeAn.L9
Videtur autem esse alimentum contrarium contrario, non omne autem omni, sed quaecumque contrariorum non solum generationem habent ex invicem, sed et augmentum. Fiunt enim multa ex invicem, sed non omnia, ut sanum ex laborante. Videntur autem neque illa eodem modo ad invicem esse alimentum, sed aqua quidem igni alimentum est, ignis autem non alit aquam; in simplicibus quidem igitur corporibus hoc esse videtur maxime, aliud quidem alimentum aliud vero quod alitur.
It would appear that food is a contrary to that which is fed; yet not everything is contrary to everything, but only such contraries as have not only generation from each other, but even their growth. For there are many things which originate from each other, but not all things (for instance, health comes from sickness). Nor, it seems, do all that do so nourish one another in the same way. For water is a food to fire, but fire does not feed water. And with simple bodies, this seems especially to be the case: that which feeds is one thing and that which is fed another.
DeAn.L9
Dubitationem autem habet. Dicunt enim hii quidem simile simili ali, sicut et augeri, aliis autem, sicut diximus, e contrario videtur contrarium contrario, tanquam inpassibile sit simile a simili, alimentum autem mutari et decoqui; mutatio autem omnibus in contrarium aut in medium. Adhuc autem patitur aliquid alimentum ab eo quod alitur, sed non hoc ab alimento, sicut neque instructor a materia, sed ab illo haec; instructor autem mutatur solum in actum ex otio.
But a difficulty arises here. For some say that anything is nourished by what is similar to it, just as it is increased thus. But to others, as we have said, it seems, on the contrary, that a thing is nourished by its contrary, as though like cannot be acted upon by like. But food is changed and digested, whereas in all things change is either to a contrary or to a mean state. Moreover, food is acted upon by that which is nourished, not the latter by the food, any more than a craftsman is acted upon by his material; but instead, this is acted on by him—the craftsman changing only from repose to activity.
DeAn.L9
Utrum autem sit alimentum quod ultimo advenit aut quod primo, habet differentiam. Si vero utraque, sed hoc quidem non coctum, illud autem coctum, utrobique utique continget alimentum dicere: inquantum enim non coctum, contrarium contrario alitur, in quantum autem coctum, simile simili. Quare manifestum quod dicunt quodam modo utrique et recte et non recte.
It makes all the difference indeed whether food is considered as what it is at first or as what it becomes finally. But if as both, in the one sense as undigested, in the other as digested, then certainly both theories of food can be upheld; for as it is undigested, one contrary is nourished by the other; but insofar as it has been digested, like is nourished by like. Whence it is clear that both parties speak in one way correctly, and in another way incorrectly.
DeAn.L9
Quoniam autem nihil alitur non participans vita, animatum utique erit corpus quod alitur, in quantum animatum, quare et alimentum ad animatum est et non secundum accidens.
Since only what is alive is nourished, what is nourished is the ensouled body as ensouled. Wherefore food means something related to what is ensouled, and this not only accidentally.
DeAn.L9
Est autem alterum alimento et augmentativo esse: secundum enim quod quantum aliquod animatum, augmentativum, secundum autem quod hoc aliquid et substantia, alimentum est: salvat enim substantiam, et usque ad hoc est quousque alatur.
Now, to be nutritive and to be augmentative are two distinct things. Insofar as something ensouled is a quantity, food is augmentative, but insofar as it is this particular thing and a substance, food is nutritive. For it preserves the substance, and this just so long as it is fed.
DeAn.L9
Et generationis autem factivum, non eius quod alitur, sed qualis id quod alitur; iam enim est ipsa substantia, generat autem nihil ipsum se ipsum, sed salvat.
But it is productive of generation, not that of the one being nourished, but of such a one as the one nourished—for the former is a substance, and nothing generates its very self; rather, it only maintains itself.
DeAn.L9
Quare huiusmodi animae principium potentia est possibilis salvare suscipiens ipsam secundum quod est huiusmodi, alimentum autem preparat operationem; unde privatum alimento non potest esse.
Therefore, this principle of the soul is a power able to preserve what possesses it as a thing of such a kind; and food is preparatory to the activity; hence, it cannot exist deprived of food.
DeAn.L9
Quoniam autem sunt tria, quod alitur et quo alitur et alens, alens quidem est prima anima, quod vero alitur est habens hanc corpus, quo vero alitur, alimentum est.
Since there are three factors: what is fed, that by which it is fed, and the one feeding; the one feeding is the first soul, that which is fed is the body containing it, and that by which it is fed is food.
DeAn.L9
Quoniam autem a fine appellari omnia iustum est, finis autem est generasse quale ipsum, erit utique prima anima generativum quale ipsum.
But since all things are rightly named from their end, and the end is to have generated another being like itself, then the first soul is generative of what is like itself.
DeAn.L9
Est autem quo alitur dupliciter, sicut et quo gubernatur et manus et themo, hoc quidem movens et motum, illud autem movens solum. Omne autem alimentum necessarium est posse decoqui, operatur autem decoctionem calidum; unde omne animatum habet calorem.
“That by which” in nourishment is twofold, as “that by which” in steering is the hand or the rudder: the one moving and moved; the other moving only. Now, of necessity all food must be such that it can be digested, and what effects digestion is heat. Hence every animate being has heat.
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Figuraliter quidem igitur alimentum quid sit, dictum est; certificandum autem est posterius de ipso in propriis rationibus.
In outline, then, we have stated what nourishment is; the subject must be further examined later in its proper accounts.
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333. Quoniam autem eadem potentia animae etc. Postquam philosophus ostendit quod anima est principium operationum quae attribuuntur potentiae vegetativae, hic intendit de his determinare. Et circa hoc tria facit:
333. Since the vegetative and generative (416a18). After showing that the activities attributed to the vegetative power have the soul as principle, the Philosopher proceeds to examine these activities. And about this he does three things.
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primo determinat de obiecto secundum se, scilicet de alimento;
First, he examines their object in itself, which is food.
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secundo determinat de eo secundum quod congruit operationibus animae vegetativae, ibi: quoniam autem nihil alitur;
Second, he shows how the activities of the vegetative soul and their object correspond, at since only what is alive (416b9; [340]).
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tertio definit potentias quae sunt principia harum operationum, ibi: quare huiusmodi animae etc.
Third, at wherefore this principle (416b17; [345]), he defines the powers that are the principles of these activities.
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Circa primum tria facit:
As regards the first point, he does three things:
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primo dicit de quo est intentio;
first, he states the plan of the present argument;
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secundo proponit id quod primo aspectu apparet de alimento, ibi: videtur autem esse alimentum etc.;
second, at it would appear that food (416a21; [334]), he says what at first sight appears true about nutrition;
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tertio movet circa hoc dubitationem, ibi: dubitationem autem habet etc.
third, at but a difficulty, (416a29; [336]), he brings an objection against this.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, cum vegetativa et generativa sub eadem communi potentia animae contineatur, licet vegetativa, id est nutritiva, sit quaedam specialis potentia distincta a generativa, oportet primum determinare de alimento, quod est obiectum vegetativae sive nutritivae; hoc enim opere, scilicet nutritione, distinguitur haec pars animae ab aliis, scilicet intellectivo, sensitivo etc.; nam aliae operationes huius partis animae hanc praesupponunt.
In the first place, then, he observes that, as the vegetative and generative powers are included in the same general power of the soul, although the vegetative (that is, the nutritive) is a certain specific power distinct from the generative, we should discuss food, which is the object of the vegetative or nutritive power. For it is this activity, namely, of taking food, that characterizes this part of the soul as distinct from the intellectual or sensitive parts. For the other activities in this part of the soul presuppose taking food.
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334. Deinde cum dicit: videtur autem etc., proponit illud quod primo aspectu de alimento apparet et proponit tria.
334. Then, at it would appear that food (416a21), he states in three points what appears at first sight with regard to nourishment.
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Quorum primum est quod alimentum videtur esse contrarium ei quod alitur, et hoc ideo quia nutrimentum convertitur in id quod nutritur, generationes autem fiunt ex contrariis.
First, food would always seem to be the contrary of the subject being nourished; and this is because food is changed into that which is nourished; moreover, generations are from contraries.
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Secundum est quod non videtur quodcumque contrarium sufficere ad rationem alimenti, sed oportet quod sit de illis contrariis quae habent generationem ex invicem:
Second, however, it seems to be clear that not any contrary whatever can suffice for the account of food; rather, food must be among those contraries that have generation from each other.
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nutrimentum enim convertitur in substantiam nutriti, unde quaecumque contraria insunt in substantia, secundum quae fiunt alterationes ad invicem, et non generationes, non pertinent ad rationem alimenti; non enim dicimus quod infirmum sit nutrimentum sani vel album nigri aut aliquid huiusmodi (quomodo autem in substantiis sit contrarietas, alia quaestio est).
For food is changed into the substance of the one fed; hence whatever contraries are within substance, according to which alterations occur, and are not generations, do not pertain to the account of food. For we do not say that the sick is the food of the healthy, nor white of black, or anything similar. (But how there can be a contrariety within substances is another question.)
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335. Tertio oportet quod sit de illis contrariis quae augmentum suscipiunt ex invicem, quia ad alimentum videtur sequi augmentum; unde licet ex igne generetur aqua sicut e converso, non tamen dicitur quod ex igne nutriatur aqua, sed quod ex aqua nutriatur ignis, inquantum liquores humidi cedunt in ignis nutrimentum, quia scilicet dum ignis in aquam convertitur, apparet nova aquae generatio, sed ignis praeexistens ad sui conservationem et augmentum videtur in se humorem convertere;
335. Third, since growth seems to follow nourishment, the contraries must admit of growth from each other in this way. Whence, although water may be generated from fire and vice versa, yet we do not say that water is fed by fire. Yet we can say that fire is fed by water, inasmuch as there are wet liquids that come into the nourishment of fire. For when fire is converted into water, there appears to be a new coming-to-be of water; but a preexisting fire seems to convert into itself the wet thing for its own conservation and growth.
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et ideo in elementis videtur solus ignis nutriri et sola aqua esse eius nutrimentum, secundum quod ad aquam pertinent omnes humores et liquores.
Among the elements, therefore, only fire seems to be fed and only water seems to be its food, insofar as all fluids and liquids pertain to water.
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336. Deinde cum dicit: dubitationem autem habet etc., movet quandam dubitationem circa determinata.
336. Then, at but a difficulty (416a29), Aristotle brings an objection against what he has just said.
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Et primo obiicit ad utramque partem;
And first, he raises an objection against both parts.
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secundo solvit eam, ibi: utrum autem sit alimentum etc.
Second, he solves it, at it makes all the difference (416b3; [339]).
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Oritur autem dubitatio circa hoc quod supra dictum est quod alimentum oportet esse contrarium. Quibusdam autem videtur quod alimentum oporteat esse simile ei quod alitur: alimentum enim est causa augmenti; oportet autem quod simile simili augeatur (si enim aliquid diversum apponeretur alicui, non esset eiusdem augmentum, sed naturae extraneae adiunctio); videtur igitur quod oporteat simile simili ali.
The difficulty concerns the statement that food must be a contrary. For some maintain that food should be like the subject fed. For food is the cause of growth, and therefore like ought to grow by what is like. For if food is assigned as something other, then it would not be the growth of the same thing but instead the addition of an extrinsic nature. Therefore, like, it seems, must be fed by like.
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337. Aliis autem videtur quod alimentum oporteat esse contrarium ei quod alitur, secundum id quod supra dictum est, et ad hoc inducuntur duplici ratione.
337. To others, however, it seems that food must, as we have said, be contrary to what is fed. And they are moved by two reasons.
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Quarum prima est quod alimentum decoquitur et mutatur in id quod nutritur; nihil autem mutatur nisi in contrarium vel in medium, sicut album mutatur in nigrum aut pallidum; medium autem est quodam modo contrarium: pallidum enim albo comparatum est nigrum, nigro vero comparatum est album (est enim compositum ex utroque); ergo nutrimentum est contrarium ei quod alitur, et in quod mutatur.
First of all, food, being digested, is transformed into the subject fed. But all transformation is either to a contrary or to a mean state, as white into either black or grey. And an intermediate is a sort of contrary: for gray compared with white, is black, and compared with black, is white; for it combines both. Therefore, food is contrary to what is nourished, to that into which it is transformed.
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338. Secunda ratio est quia agens est contrarium patienti (non enim simile a simili patitur); alimentum autem patitur ab eo quod alitur (alteratur enim ab eo et digeritur); id autem quod alitur non patitur ab alimento, sicut neque artifex patitur a materia, sed e converso: materia enim mutatur, non autem artifex, nisi forte per accidens secundum quod exit de potentia in actum; videtur igitur quod alimentum sit contrarium ei quod alitur.
338. Second, every agent is contrary to that on which it acts; like is not acted upon by like. But food is acted upon by that which is nourished: for it is transformed and digested. What is being fed is not acted upon by its food any more than an artist is acted upon by his material (for it is the material that is altered, not the artist, except accidentally, insofar as he goes from potency to act). It would seem, then, that food is contrary to what is fed.
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Prima igitur harum rationum sumitur ex contrarietate quam oportet esse inter terminos mutationis,
Now, the first of these two reasons is drawn from the contrariety between the two terms of a change;
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secunda vero ex contrarietate quam oportet esse inter agens et patiens: id enim quod alitur et agit in alimentum est terminus in quem alimentum mutatur.
and the second reason is drawn from the contrariety between agent and patient. That which is fed and which itself acts upon the food is the term into which the food is transformed.
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339. Deinde cum dicit: utrum autem sit etc., solvit propositam dubitationem, dicens quod differt quantum ad propositam quaestionem utrum alimentum dicatur id quod ultimo advenit, scilicet post decoctionem et digestionem, an illud quod primo assumitur, scilicet antequam digeratur et decoquatur.
339. Then, at it makes all the difference (416b3), he solves the problem, saying that the answer depends on whether by food we mean what it becomes finally after the process of heating and digesting, or what it is at first before this process begins.
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Et si utrumque horum alimentum, unum quidem horum quasi alimentum decoctum, aliud vero quasi non decoctum, secundum utramque partem quaestionis poterit iudicari de alimento, quia inquantum alimentum dicitur non decoctum, sic contrarium contrario alitur (hoc enim est quod patitur et mutatur), inquantum vero est coctum, sic alitur simile simili (agens enim assimilat sibi patiens, unde in fine passionis oportet passum esse simile agenti) et per hunc modum alimentum potest augere id quod alitur.
If “food” can be taken in both these senses—namely, as the digested food and as the not yet digested—then the two answers are both admissible. If it is taken in the latter sense, as undigested, then subjects are fed by their contrary, for this is what is acted upon and transformed; but if in the former sense, then like is fed by like, for an agent renders like what it acts upon, which at the end of this undergoing is made like the agent and, in this way, the food can augment that which it nourishes.
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Et sic patet quod utrique praedictorum opinantium aliquo modo dicunt recte et aliquo modo non dicunt recte.
Thus both the above opinions were in one way true and in another way false.
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340. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem nihil alitur etc., determinat de alimento secundum quod congruit operationibus animae vegetativae.
340. Next, at since only (416b9), he shows how food is related to the activities of the vegetative soul:
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Et primo secundum quod congruit nutritioni;
first, to taking nourishment;
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secundo secundum quod congruit augmento, ibi: est autem alterum alimento etc.;
second, to growth, at now, to be nutritive (416b11; [343]);
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tertio secundum quod congruit generationi, ibi: et generationis autem factivum etc.
third, to reproduction, at but it is productive (416b15; [344]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, nihil nutritur quod non participet vita, omne autem participans vita est animatum, sequitur quod corpus quod alitur sit animatum; alimentum autem est in potentia ad id quod alitur, convertitur enim in ipsum; relinquitur ergo quod alimentum inquantum est nutritionis obiectum sit aliquid existens in potentia ad animatum per se et non secundum accidens.
First, then, he observes that nothing is nourished except what participates in life, but since everything that has life is ensouled, it follows that the body that is fed is ensouled. Now, food is in potency with respect to what is fed, for it is changed into this. It follows, then, that food, inasmuch as it is the object of nutrition, is something in potency to what is ensouled, through itself and not only accidentally.
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341. Considerandum autem est quod nihil proprie nutritur nisi animatum, ignis autem videtur quidem quamdam similitudinem nutriri, non autem proprie nutritur, quod sic patet: id enim proprie nutriri dicimus quod in seipso aliquid recipit ad sui ipsius conservationem, hoc autem in igne videtur quidem accidere, sed tamen non accidit; cum enim igne iam accenso aliqua materia combustibilis additur, in illa materia combustibili novus ignis generatur, non autem ita quod illud combustibile additum cedat in conservationem ignis in alia materia prius accensi, puta si aliquod lignum de novo ignitur, per hanc ignitionem non conservatur ignitio alterius ligni prius igniti: totus enim ignis qui est ex congregatione multorum ignitorum non est unus simpliciter, sed videtur unus aggregatione, sicuti acervus lapidum est unus, et propter talem unitatem est ibi quaedam similitudo nutritionis;
341. Properly speaking, then, nothing is fed except what has a soul. Fire might seem to resemble in some way things that are fed, but it is not fed, properly speaking, as is clear from what follows. For that is properly said to be fed which absorbs something else in order to maintain its own being; and though this appears to happen with fire, it does not really happen. For once a fire has started, if you add combustible matter, a new fire starts in that combustible matter, but not in such a way that the new fuel maintains the fire already started before it was added. For example, by starting a fire in fresh wood you do not maintain the flame in the other wood already burning. For the total flame made up of many things ignited is not one simply speaking; rather, it is only one by aggregation, the way a heap of stones is one. And it is this sort of unity that gives to burning a certain likeness to taking food.
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342. sed corpora animata vere nutriuntur, quia per alimentum conservatur vita in illa eadem parte quae prius fuit. Et propter hoc etiam sola animata vere augentur, quia quaelibet pars eorum et nutritur et augetur, quod non contingit in rebus inanimatis quae videntur per additionem crescere: non enim crescit id quod prius fuit, sed ex additione alterius constituitur quoddam aliud totum maius. Ideo autem similitudo augmenti et nutrimenti praecipue apparet in igne, quia ignis habet plus de forma quam alia elementa et est potentior in virtute activa; unde propter hoc quod manifeste alia convertit in se, videtur nutriri et augeri.
342. Ensouled bodies, on the other hand, are really fed; for food maintains life precisely where it already existed. This also is why only ensouled bodies truly grow; for each and every part in them is fed and increases, whereas things without soul increase only by addition of part to part; for what existed already does not increase, but rather, some greater whole is constituted by something else being added to it. But fire has a special likeness to living and growing things because fire has more of form than do the other elements, and its active power is more powerful. It seems, therefore, to feed and grow because it so obviously converts other things into itself.
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343. Deinde cum dicit: est autem alterum etc., ostendit quomodo alimentum congruit augmento. Et dicit quod, licet idem sit subiecto quod est obiectum nutritionis prout dicitur alimentum et quod est obiectum augmenti prout dicitur augmentativum, tamen differt ratione. Dictum est enim quod alimentum est in potentia ad corpus animatum; corpus autem animatum et est quoddam quantum et est hoc aliquid et substantia;
343. Then, at now, to be nutritive (416b11), he relates taking food to growth, observing that while what is the object of nourishment as feeding and the object of growing as causing increase are the same in subject, nonetheless they differ in account. For food, we have seen, is in potency to the ensouled body, and the ensouled body is both a certain quantity and this particular thing and a substance.
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secundum igitur quod est quoddam quantum, secundum hoc alimentum adveniens ei, quod etiam et ipsum quantum est, facit augmentum, et dicitur augmentativum; in quantum autem corpus animatum hoc aliquid et substantia est, sic habet rationem alimenti: hoc enim est de ratione alimenti quod conservat substantiam eius quod alitur, quae quidem conservatio necessaria est propter continuam consumptionem humidi a calido naturali; et ideo tamdiu durat substantia eius quod nutritur quamdiu nutriatur.
Insofar as something is a certain quantity, the food reaching it, which is itself a quantity, causes growth and is called augmentative; but inasmuch as an ensouled body is this particular thing and a substance, it has the account of food. For it belongs to the account of food to maintain the substance of what is fed, which is required by the continuous using up of natural warmth and moisture. Hence, the substance of the thing fed lasts just so long as it is nourished.
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344. Deinde cum dicit: et generationis autem factivum etc., ostendit quomodo alimentum congruat generationi. Et dicit quod etiam alimentum est factivum generationis: semen enim, quod est generationis principium, est superfluum alimenti;
344. Then, at but it is productive (416b15), he shows how food is suited to generation. And he also says that food is a cause also of generation. For seed, which is the principle of generation, is a residue of one’s food.
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non tamen alimentum est principium generationis eius quod alitur, sed alterius quod est tale secundum speciem quale est id quod alitur, quia substantia quae alitur iam est et quod est non generatur; et nihil generat seipsum, quia quod generat iam est, quod generatur nondum est; sed aliquid potest agere ad sui conservationem.
Yet food is not a principle of the generation of the one being nourished, but of another that is like in species to the one nourished; for the substance that is being nourished already exists and what exists cannot be generated. Nothing generates itself, because what generates already exists and what is generated does not exist yet. But something can act for its own preservation.
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345. Deinde cum dicit: quare huiusmodi animae etc., ex praemissis accipit definitionem potentiarum animae vegetabilis.
345. Next, at therefore, this principle (416b17), he concludes with a definition of the powers of the vegetative soul:
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Et primo potentiae nutritivae;
first, of the nutritive power;
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secundo totius animae vegetabilis, ibi: quoniam autem a fine etc.
second, of the whole vegetative soul, at but since all things (416b23; [347]).
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Circa primum duo facit.
About the first, he does two things.
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Primo ex praemissis concludit definitionem potentiae nutritivae. Et dicit quod, cum dictum sit quod nutrimentum inquantum huiusmodi salvat nutritum, manifestum est quod hoc principium animae, quod scilicet est principium nutritionis, nihil est aliud quam potentia potens salvare suum susceptivum inquantum huiusmodi, alimentum vero est quod praeparat operationem huiusmodi potentiae inquantum talis potentia mediante alimento salvat suum susceptivum; et propter hoc illud quod privatur alimento non potest conservari.
First, we understand the definition of the nutritive power from what has already been said.1 Insofar as the nutriment preserves the thing nourished, this principle of the soul (namely, the principle of nourishment), is nothing other than the power by which the living being is able to preserve itself as such. But food is preparatory for this power’s activity, insofar as this power preserves its subject by means of food. And on account of this, whatever is deprived of food cannot survive.
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346. Et quia dixerat quod principium nutritionis est potentia animae, cuius principium est alimentum ut ex dictis patet, ideo secundo ibi: quoniam autem sunt tria etc., ostendit quomodo differenter potentia animae et alimentum sunt principia nutritionis. Dicit ergo quod in nutritione sunt tria: quod alitur, quo alitur et alens; primum quidem alens est prima anima, scilicet anima vegetabilis, illud vero quod alitur est corpus habens hanc animam; sed illud quo alitur est alimentum. Sic igitur potentia animae est principium nutritionis ut agens principale, alimentum autem ut instrumentum.
346. And, having remarked that the principle of nutritive activity is a power whose principle is food, he goes on, at since there are three (416b20), to show how that power and the food itself differ as principles of nutrition.1 Nutrition, he says, involves three factors: what is fed; that by which it is fed; and the one feeding: first, the one feeding is the first soul, that is, the vegetative soul. That which is fed is the body containing the soul; and that by which it is fed is food. Thus, a power of the soul is the principle of nourishment as a principal agent, but food is the principle as an instrument.
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347. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem a fine etc., definit ipsam primam animam, quae dicitur anima vegetabilis, quae quidem in plantis est anima, in animalibus autem pars animae. Et circa hoc duo facit.
347. Next, at but since all things (416b23), he defines that first soul, which is called the vegetative soul, which is the soul of plants but only part of an animal’s soul. And about this he does two things.
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Primo definit huiusmodi animam. Ad cuius definitionis intellectum sciendum est quod inter tres operationes animae vegetabilis est quidam ordo;
First, he defines this kind of soul. To understand his definition, we must realize that the three activities of the vegetative soul fall into a certain order.
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nam prima eius operatio est nutritio, per quam salvatur aliquid ut est;
First is taking food, by which things are maintained in being;
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secunda autem et perfectior est augmentum, quo aliquid proficit in maiorem perfectionem et secundum quantitatem et secundum virtutem;
the second and more perfect activity is growth, by which a thing attains a greater completion, both in quantity and in power;
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tertia autem perfectissima et finalis est generatio per quam aliquid iam quasi in seipso perfectum existens alteri esse et perfectionem tradit;
while the third and most complete and ultimate activity is reproduction, by which a being that is already perfect in itself passes on existence and perfection to another being.
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tunc enim unumquodque maxime perfectum est, ut in IV Meteororum dicitur, cum potest facere alterum tale quale ipsum est. Quia igitur iustum est quod omnia definiantur et nominentur a fine, finis autem operum animae vegetabilis est generare alterum tale quale ipsum est, sequitur quod ipsa sit conveniens definitio primae animae, scilicet vegetabilis, ut sit generativa alterius similis secundum speciem.
For each thing is most complete, as is said in Meteorology 4, when it can make another like itself.1 If, then, all things are rightly defined and named from their end, and the end of all the activities of the vegetative soul is to generate another like itself, it follows that we can suitably define this primary soul, that is, the vegetative, as that which is reproductive of another like to itself in species.
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348. Et quia dixerat quod alimentum est instrumentum huius animae, ne credatur quod non habeat aliud instrumentum, secundo ibi: est autem quo alitur, ostendit quod habet aliud instrumentum. Et dicit quod duplex est instrumentum quo alitur, sicut est duplex instrumentum gubernationis: gubernator enim gubernat et manu et temone;
348. And in view of his previous remark that this primary soul’s instrument was food, to prevent anyone thinking that it had no other instrument, he shows, at that by which (416b25) that the subject fed has another instrument by which it is fed; as in steering a ship there are two instruments, for the pilot steers with both hand and rudder.1
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manus enim est instrumentum coniunctum cuius forma est anima, unde temo est instrumentum movens navem et motum a manu, sed manus non est instrumentum motum aliquo exteriori, sed solum a principio intrinseco: est enim pars hominis moventis seipsum;
Now, the hand is a conjoined instrument of that which has the soul for its form. Whence the rudder is an instrument which moves the boat and itself is moved by the hand, but the hand is not an instrument moved by something exterior, but only by an interior principle; for it is a part of the man moving himself.
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sic igitur et nutritionis instrumentum et separatum quidem et cuius forma nondum est anima est nutrimentum, oportet autem quod aliud sit instrumentum nutritionis coniunctum: necesse est enim quod alimentum decoquatur, quod autem operatur decoctionem, est aliquid calidum; sicut igitur gubernator movet temonem manu, navem autem temone, ita anima movet calido alimentum et alimento nutrit. Sic igitur calidum aliquid est instrumentum coniunctum huius animae, in quo scilicet radicaliter est calor naturalis digerens; et propter hoc oportet quod omne animatum quod nutritur habeat calorem naturalem, quod est digestionis principium. Si autem haec anima non haberet instrumentum coniunctum, non esset actus alicuius partis corporis, quod soli intellectui competit.
Similarly, the instrument of nutrition is twofold. There is the separated instrument not yet informed by the soul; and this is food. But there must also be a conjoined instrument, for the food must be digested, but what effects digestion is something that has heat. As, then, a pilot moves the rudder with his hand, and the boat with the rudder, so the soul moves the food with heat and, by means of the food, nourishes itself. Therefore the heat is a certain conjoined instrument of this soul, in which as a root is found this natural digestive heat; and on account of this, every ensouled being that is nourished has this natural heat, which is a principle of digestion. And it is because this soul is, unlike the intellect, the actuality of a part of the body that it has a conjoined instrument.
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349. Ultimo epilogans quod dixerat concludit quod figuraliter, id est universaliter, dictum est quid sit alimentum; sed posterius certius tractandum est de alimento in propriis rationibus: fecit enim unum specialem librum de alimento, sicut de generatione animalium et de motu animalium.
349. Summarizing, Aristotle says that he has defined in outline (416b30), that is, in general, what food is; later he will treat of it in its proper accounts. For he wrote a special book on nourishment, as also on the generation of animals and on the movement of animals.
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L. 10 (B.5, 416b32–417a21)Potency and act in sensation
Quomodo simile a simili patiatur: ex quo deducit sensum non in actu esse ipsa sensibilia, sed in potentia: est etiam in actu quo ipso suo opere fungitur, sensibilia ipsa cognoscendo
Potency and act in sensation
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Determinatis autem his, dicamus communiter de omni sensu. Sensus autem in moveri aliquid et pati accidit, sicut dictum est: videtur enim quaedam alteratio esse. Aiunt autem quidam et simile a simili pati. Hoc autem quomodo possibile aut impossibile, dictum est in universalibus rationibus de agere et pati.
These questions being settled, let us speak of sensation in general. As has been said, sensation occurs in something being moved and acted upon; for it appears to be a certain alteration. Now, some say, ‘like is acted upon by like.’ In what way this is possible or impossible has been stated in our universal accounts about acting and being acted upon.
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Habet autem dubitationem propter quid sensuum ipsorum non fit sensus, et quare sine his quae sunt extra non faciunt sensum, inexistente igne et terra et aliis elementis quorum est sensus per se aut secundum accidentia his.
It may be asked why there is no sensation of the senses themselves and why they do not produce sensation without something extraneous, seeing that they contain within themselves fire and earth and the other elements that the senses concern, either of themselves or according to their accidents.
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Manifestum igitur est quod sensitivum non est actu, sed potentia tantum, unde non sentiunt, sicut combustibile non comburitur ipsum a se ipso sine combustivo: combureret enim se ipsum, et nihil indigeret actu ignem esse.
It becomes evident, then, that the sensitive power is not in act but is only in potency, which explains why it does not sense, just as the combustible does not burn of itself without something to make it burn. Otherwise it would burn itself, and not need an actual fire to be present.
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Quoniam autem sentire dicimus dupliciter (potentia enim audiens et videns audire et videre dicimus, etsi forte dormiens, et quod iam operans), dupliciter utique dicetur et sensus, hic quidem sicut potentia, ille vero sicut actu. Similiter autem et sentire, quodque potentia ens et quod actu.
But as we speak of sensing in two ways (for we say that one who sees and hears in potency sees and hears, whether he happens to be asleep or is actively doing it), so we may speak of sense in two ways, as in potency and as in act. Likewise, to sense is also both a being in potency and in act.
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Primum quidem igitur tanquam sit idem pati et moveri et agere dicimus: et namque motus est actus quidam, imperfectus tamen, sicut in alteris dictum est.
To start with, then, let us speak as if being acted upon and being moved were the same as acting. For even movement is a certain act, though imperfect, as has been stated elsewhere.
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Omnia autem patiuntur et moventur ab activo et actu ente. Unde est quidem tanquam a simili pati, est autem ut a dissimili, sicut diximus: patitur quidem enim quod dissimile, passum autem simile est.
All things are moved and acted upon by an agent and a being in act. Hence it is that a thing is acted upon both by its like and also by its unlike, as we have said. For what is being acted upon is unlike; what has been acted upon is like.
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350. Determinatis autem his, dicamus etc. Postquam determinavit philosophus de parte vegetativa, hic incipit determinare de parte sensitiva. Et dividitur in partes duas:
350. These questions being settled (416b32). After treating of the vegetative part of the soul, the Philosopher now begins to examine the sensitive part. This treatment divides into two sections.
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in prima determinat de eo quod apparet in hac parte, scilicet de sensibus exterioribus;
The first section deals with what is most apparent in the sensitive part, that is, the exterior senses.
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in secunda determinat de eo quod latet in parte sensitiva, ibi: quod autem non sit sensus alter etc.
The second section, beginning at that there is no other sense (424b22; [564]), treats of what is hidden therein.
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Prima dividitur in duas:
The first is divided into two parts.
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in prima ostendit quomodo se habet sensus ad sensibile;
In the first, Aristotle explains how senses are related to sensible objects.
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in secunda determinat de sensibili et sensu, ibi: dicendum autem secundum unumquemque etc.
In the second, at in treating of each sense (418a7; [383]), he defines both the sensible object and the sense.
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Circa primum duo facit:
About the first, he does two things:
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primo resumit quaedam quae sunt prius dicta;
first, he repeats some earlier observations;
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secundo investigat propositum, ibi: habet autem dubitationem etc.
second, at it may be asked (417a2; [352]), he proceeds to the present problem.
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Dicit ergo primo quod determinatis his quae pertinent ad partem vegetativam, dicendum est de his quae pertinent ad sensum in communi; de his enim quae pertinent ad unumquemque sensum specialiter, postmodum dicet. Duo autem resumit dicta de sensu. Quorum unum est quod sentire consistit in moveri et pati: est enim sensus in actu quaedam alteratio, quod autem alteratur, patitur et movetur. Aliud autem quod resumit est quod quidam dicunt simile a simili pati; et propter hoc, quia sentire est pati quoddam,
First of all, then, he remarks that these questions being settled that pertain to the vegetative part, he must now speak with a general view of sense, going on later to a more detailed treatment of each sense in particular.1 And he repeats two things already said: that to sense consists in being moved or acted upon, for the act of sensation involves a certain alteration, which is being altered, acted upon, and moved; and second, he takes up the fact that some say ‘like is acted upon by like’, and this is because sensation is a certain being acted upon:
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351. antiqui posuerunt quod simile simili cognoscitur et sentitur, sicut Empedocles posuit quod terra terra cognoscitur, ignis igne et sic de aliis.
351. so some early thinkers held that like is known and sensed by like: as Empedocles said that earth knows earth, fire knows fire, and so on.
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Sed hoc quomodo possit esse vel non, quod simile simili patiatur, dictum est in universalibus rationibus de agere et pati, id est in libro De generatione, ubi determinavit de actione et passione in communi. Dictum est enim ibi quod id quod patitur a principio dum patitur est contrarium agenti, sed in fine quando iam est passum est simile; agens enim agendo assimilat sibi patiens.
How it can be so (and not so) that like is acted on by like has been stated in our universal accounts of acting and being acted upon, that is, in On Generation, where he considers acting and being acted upon in common. For he says there that, although what is acted upon at the beginning, while it is being acted upon, is contrary to the agent, at the end, when it has already been acted upon, it is like it.1 For an agent, in acting, makes the patient like himself.
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352. Deinde cum dicit: habet autem dubitationem etc., determinat veritatem circa propositum. Et circa hoc tria facit:
352. Then, at it may be asked (417a2), he proceeds to determine the truth of the present problem. And about this he does three things.
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primo ostendit quod sensus sit in potentia;
First, he shows that in themselves the senses are in potency;
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secundo quod quandoque est in actu, ibi: quoniam autem sentire etc.;
second, at but as we speak of sensing in two ways (417a10; [355]), that they are sometimes in act;
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tertio ostendit quomodo sensus reducatur de potentia in actum, ibi: dicendum autem etc.
third, at distinctions, however (417a21; [358]), he shows how they are reduced from potency into act.
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Circa primum considerandum est quod Empedocles et quicumque posuerunt simile simili cognosci, posuerunt sensum esse actu ipsa sensibilia; ut enim cognosceret omnia sensibilia, posuerunt animam sensitivam esse compositam quodammodo ex omnibus sensibilibus, inquantum constabat secundum eos ex elementis sensibilium.
To understand the first, note that all who, like Empedocles, said that like is known by like thought that the senses were the actual sense-objects themselves; for he asserted that the sensitive soul, to know all sense-objects, must in some way be composed of all things sensible, insofar as it was put together (according to them) from the elements of sensible things.
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353. Duo ergo ad hanc positionem consequebantur,
353. Two things follow from this hypothesis.
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quorum unum est quod, si sensus est ipsa sensibilia in actu utpote compositus ex eis, cum ipsa sensibilia in actu sentiri possunt, sequeretur quod ipsi sensus sentiri possunt;
One is that, if the senses actually are, or are made up of, the sense-objects themselves, then, if the actual sensible things themselves can be sensed, the senses themselves can be sensed.
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secundum est quod, cum sensus sentire possit praesentibus sensibilibus, si sensibilia actu sunt in sensu utpote ex eis composito, sequetur quod sensus possit sentire sine exterioribus sensibilibus.
The second is that, since a sense can sense when the sensible objects are present, then, if this object actually exists in the sense as part of its composition, it follows that a sense can sense in the absence of external sensible objects.
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Utrumque autem horum est falsum. Et ideo haec duo inconvenientia quae sequuntur ad antiquorum positionem, sub quaestione proponit, tamquam quae per antiquos solvi non possint. Hoc est ergo quod dicit quod dubitationem habet propter quid non fit sensus ipsorum sensuum, id est quare ipsi sensus non sentiantur: hoc enim videtur sequi, si sensus sint similes sensibilibus;
But both these things are false. He introduces these two incongruities that follow from the ancient view under the form of a question as things that the early philosophers could not solve. So he says, it may be asked why there is no sensation of the senses, that is, why the senses themselves are not sensed; for it seems they would be sensed if the senses are like the sensible objects.
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354. item habet dubitationem quare non faciunt sensum, id est quare sensus non sentiunt actu, sine his quae sunt extra, id est sine exterioribus sensibilibus, cum tamen interius existant in ipsis sensibus, secundum opinionem antiquorum, ignis et terra et alia elementa quae sunt sensibilia aut secundum se, id est secundum suam substantiam, secundum eos qui non discernunt inter sensum et intellectum (intellectus enim est proprie cognoscitivus substantiae), aut secundum accidentia propria, scilicet calidum frigidum et alia huiusmodi quae sunt per se sensibilia. Quia igitur hae dubitationes solvi non possunt si sensus habet sensibilia in actu, ut antiqui posuerunt, concludit tamquam manifestum quod anima sensitiva non est actu sensibilia, sed potentia tantum, et propter hoc sensus non sentiunt sine exterioribus sensibilibus, sicut combustibile, quod est potentia tantum ignitum, non comburitur a seipso sine exteriori combustivo; si enim esset actu ignitum, combureret seipsum, et non indigeret exteriori igne ad hoc quod combureretur.
354. It is also hard to see why they do not produce sensation, that is, why actual sensation does not occur, without something extraneous, that is, without exterior sense-objects, since existing internal to the senses themselves are, in the opinion of the ancients, fire, earth, and the other elements, which are sensible either in themselves, that is, in their own substance, according to those who did not discern between the senses and the intellect (for intellect is properly able to know substance), or according to their proper accidents, namely, hot and cold and so forth, which are sensible through themselves. Now, since these difficulties are insurmountable if the sense power has its objects in act (as the early philosophers thought), Aristotle concludes it is evident that the sensitive soul is the sense-object not in act but is only in potency. That is why the sense does not sense without an exterior sense-object, just as the combustible does not burn of itself without an exterior agent to make it burn; whereas if it were actually fire, it would burn of itself.
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355. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem sentire, ostendit quod sensus etiam quandoque est in actu, et circa hoc tria facit.
355. Then, at but as we speak of sensing (417a10), he shows that sensation is sometimes in act. About this, he does three things.
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Primo ostendit sensum quandoque esse in actu per hoc quod dupliciter dicimus aliquem sentire: quandoque enim dicimus aliquem audire et videre qui audit et videt in potentia, puta cum aliquis est dormiens; quandoque autem dicimus aliquem audire et videre eo quod est in ipsa operatione audiendi et videndi. Ex quo patet quod sensus et sentire dicuntur dupliciter, scilicet in actu et in potentia.
First, he shows that sensation is sometimes in act in two ways in which we speak of anyone sensing. For we sometimes say that someone sees and hears when he only sees and hears potentially, as when he is asleep, but sometimes we say someone sees and hears by the fact that he is doing the activity of seeing and hearing. Clearly, then, sensation and sensing may be spoken of in two ways, that is, in act or in potency.
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356. Secundo ibi: primum quidem igitur etc., manifestat quomodo intelligendum sit quod dictum est. Videbatur enim repugnare quod sentire dicitur in actu ei quod dictum est quod sentire est quoddam pati et moveri: esse enim in actu videtur magis pertinere ad agere. Et ideo ad hoc exponendum dicit quod ita dicimus sentire in actu ac si dicamus quod pati et moveri sint quoddam agere, id est quoddam esse in actu: nam motus est quidam actus, sed imperfectus, ut dictum est in III Physicorum; est enim actus existentis in potentia, scilicet mobilis. Sicut igitur motus est actus, ita moveri et sentire est quoddam agere vel esse secundum actum. Per hoc autem quod dicit primum, significat quod quaedam alia postmodum subdet ad ostendendum quomodo sensus fiat in actu.
356. Next, at to start with, then (417a14), he explains the above. For to speak of sensation as in act might seem contradictory to his previous statement that it was a certain being acted upon or being moved; for to be in act seems to pertain more to being active. So he explains that we are speaking of sensation in act as though we were saying that being acted upon or moved were a certain activity, that is, a certain state of being actual. For movement is a certain actuality, but an imperfect one (as he says in Physics 3), for it is the act of a being in potency, that is, of a changeable thing.1 Just as motion is an act, then, being moved and sensing is a certain activity or being in act. The phrase, to start with, however, means that he will add something later to show how the senses become actual in fact.
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357. Tertio ibi: omnia autem patiuntur, ostendit secundum praedicta quomodo antiquorum positio possit esse vera, scilicet quod simile simili sentitur. Dicit ergo quod omnia quae sunt in potentia patiuntur et moventur ab activo et existente in actu, quod scilicet dum facit esse in actu ea quae patiuntur assimilat ea sibi; unde quodammodo patitur aliquis aliquid a simili et quodammodo a dissimili, ut dictum est, quia a principio, dum est in transmutari et pati, est dissimile, in fine autem, dum est in transmutatum esse et passum, est simile. Sic igitur et sensus, postquam factus est in actu a sensibili, est similis ei, sed ante non est similis, quod antiqui non distinguentes erraverunt.
357. Third, at all things are moved and acted upon (417a17), he shows how it follows from the above that the old position, that like senses like, cannot be true. All things that are in potency, he says, are acted upon and moved by an agent and something existing in act, namely, that which, when it makes actual things that are being acted upon, makes them like itself. In some sense, then, a thing is acted upon by both its like and its unlike (as we have already remarked). At first, and while it is being transformed and acted upon, there is dissimilarity; but at the end, when the thing has been transformed and acted upon, there is similarity. Therefore, so too, the sense, after it has been actually acted upon by the sensible object, is like it, but before, it is not like; the early philosophers went wrong because they missed this distinction.
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L. 11 (B.5, 417a21–417b16)Potency and act in sensation continued
Distinguit quippiam esse in potentia bifariam; vel simpliciter, vel secundum quid; et ad intellectum applicans, ostendit quomodo ex potentia reducatur in actum, non quidem patiendo, sed potius seipsum perficiendo
Potency and act in sensation continued
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Dividendum autem et de potentia et actu est. Nunc enim simpliciter dicimus quae habemus de ipsis.
Distinctions, however, must be made concerning potency and act; for at present we are speaking of these in a simple way.
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Est quidem enim sic sciens aliquid, sicut si dicamus hominem, quoniam homo scientium et habentium scientiam; est autem sicut iam dicimus scientem habentem gramaticam. Uterque autem horum non eodem modo possibilis est, sed hic quidem quoniam genus huiusmodi et materia est, ille autem quia volens possibilis est considerare, nisi aliquid prohibeat exterius; iam autem considerans, actu ens et proprie sciens hanc litteram A.
For there is such a thing as a “knower,” in one sense, as when we say that man is a knower because man is among things able to know and have knowledge. But we also say it in the way we speak of a man who already has knowledge of grammar. These two are not possible in the same way; but the former’s power is, as it were, generic and matter; whereas the latter has the power to consider at will, so long as no extraneous obstacle intervenes. Yet again, he who is actually attending to the letter A is properly speaking the one knowing.
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Ambo quidem igitur primi secundum potentiam scientes sunt, sed hic quidem per doctrinam alteratus est et multotiens ex contrario mutatus habitu, hic autem ex eo quod habet sensum aut gramaticam, non agere autem, in agere, alio modo.
Therefore the first two are knowing in potency. But one has been altered through teaching and is often altered from the contrary state, whereas the other is moved to activity from having sense or grammar without acting, but in a different way.
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Non est autem simpliciter neque pati, sed aliud quidem corruptio quaedam a contrario, aliud autem salus magis eius quod potentia ab eo quod est actu et simili sic sicut potentia se habet ad actum.
Nor is being acted upon simple. Rather, it is one thing to be somehow destroyed by a contrary, and something else when there is more the preservation of what is in potency by what is in act and like it, the way that potency stands relative to act.
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Speculans autem fit habens scientiam, quod vere aut non est alterari (in ipsum enim additio1 est et in actum), aut alterum genus alterationis est. Unde non bene habet dicere sapientem, cum sapiat, alterari, sicut neque aedificatorem cum aedificat. In actum quidem igitur ducens ex potentia ente secundum intelligere et sapere, non doctrinam, sed alteram habere denominationem iustum.
For when a man possessed of knowledge thinks, there is certainly either no alteration—there being an advance into itself, and into actuality—or it is a different genus of alteration. Hence it is not well said to say that a wise man is “altered” when he thinks, as neither is it to say this of the builder when he builds. Therefore the progression from being in potency to being in act, as regards understanding and thinking, is not instruction, but rightly has some other name.
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Ex potentia autem ente addiscens et accipiens scientiam ab actu ente et didascalo aut neque pati dicendum, sicut dictum est, aut duos esse modos alterationis, et eam que in privativas dispositiones mutationem, et eam quae in habitus et naturam.
But the change from being in potency, in one who learns and receives knowledge from another (who actually has it and teaches), either should not be called a “being acted upon” (as we have said), or there are two modes of alteration, one a change to a privative disposition, the other to a possession and nature.
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358. Dividendum autem etc. Postquam philosophus ostendit sensum esse in potentia et in actu, et nunc intendit ostendere quomodo educatur de potentia in actum. Et dividitur in partes duas:
358. Distinctions, however, must be made (417a21). Having explained how the sensitive powers are both in act and in potency, the Philosopher now goes on to say how they are brought from potency into act. This he does in two parts.
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in prima distinguit potentiam et actum et ostendit quomodo diversimode aliquid educatur de potentia in actum, utens exemplo intellectu;
In the first, he distinguishes between act and potency and between the diverse ways in which a thing is led from potency to act, taking his example from the intellect.
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in secunda parte ostendit propositum circa sensum, ibi: sensitivi autem etc.
In the second, at the first change in the sensitive being (417b16; [373]), he applies all this to the case of sensation.
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Circa primum tria facit:
As regards the first of these parts, he does three things:
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primo dicit de quo est intentio;
first, he states his intention;
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secundo distinguit potentiam et actum circa intellectum, ibi: est quidem enim sic sciens etc.;
second, he distinguishes, at for there is such a thing as (417a22; [359]), between act and potency in the intellect;
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tertio ostendit quomodo aliquid educatur de potentia in actum, ibi: ambo quidem igitur etc.
third, he explains, at therefore the first two (417a30; [362]), how what is potential becomes actual.
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Dicit ergo primo quod dividendum est de potentia et actu, id est ostendendum quot modis dicitur aliquid in potentia et quot modis in actu. Quod necessarium fuit, quia in superioribus simpliciter, id est absque distinctione, usus est potentia et actu.
First of all, then, he says that there is a division concerning potency and act to show the diverse ways in which things can be said to be actual or potential—because, so far, the two terms have been used in a simple way, that is, without distinctions.1
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359. Deinde cum dicit: est quidem enim etc., distinguit potentiam et actum circa intellectum.
359. Then, at for there is such a thing as (417a22), he distinguishes act and potency in the intellect.
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Et dicit quod uno modo dicitur aliquid, puta homo, sciens, quia habet naturalem potentiam ad sciendum, sicut homo dicitur esse de numero scientium et habentium scientiam, inquantum habet naturam ad sciendum et ad habendum habitum scientiae;
And he says that we say that in one sense a thing, that is, a man, is a knower because he has a natural capacity for knowledge. This is the way we say that man is among the number of things able to know and have knowledge, inasmuch as he has a nature ordered to knowing and to having the habit of knowledge.
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secundo modo dicitur aliquid quod sciat, sicut dicimus habentem habitum alicuius scientiae, puta grammaticae, esse iam scientem.
In another sense, however, we say one knows something in the way we speak of a man who has the habit of a certain knowledge—for example, grammar—that he already has knowledge.
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360. Manifestum est autem quod uterque horum dicitur sciens ex eo quod aliquid potest, sed non eodem modo uterque est potens ad sciendum,
360. Now, obviously, these two capacities are implied by calling him a knower, but not in the same way in both cases.
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sed primus quidem dicitur potens quia est genus huiusmodi et materia, id est quia habet naturalem potentiam ad sciendum per quam collocatur in tali genere et quia est in potentia puta ad scientiam sicut materia ad formam;
In the first case, man’s power is said to be generic and matter, that is, because he has a natural potency for knowing through his being placed in a certain sort of genus, and because he is in potency, for example, to knowledge as matter is to its form.
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secundus autem, scilicet qui habet habitum scientiae, dicitur potens quia cum vult potest considerare, nisi aliquid extrinsecum per accidens impediat, puta vel occupatio exterior vel aliqua indispositio ex parte corporis;
But in the second case, one who has the habit of knowledge is called “able to know” because when he wishes, he can consider at will his knowledge—unless, of course, he is accidentally prevented, for example, by exterior preoccupations or by some bodily indisposition.
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361. tertius autem, qui iam considerat, est in actu et iste est qui proprie et perfecte scit ea quae sunt alicuius artis, puta hanc literam A, quae pertinet ad grammaticam de qua supra fecit mentionem.
361. A third case would be that of a man who was actually thinking about something here and now. He it is who most properly and perfectly is a knower in any field, for example, knowing the letter A, which belongs to the above-mentioned science of grammar.1
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Horum igitur trium, ultimus est in actu tantum, primus in potentia tantum, secundus autem in actu respectu primi et in potentia respectu tertii. Unde manifestum est quod esse in potentia dicitur dupliciter, scilicet de primo et secundo, et esse in actu dicitur dupliciter, scilicet de secundo et tertio.
Of the three, then, the third is only in act; the first is only in potency; while the second is in act as compared with the first and in potency as compared with the third. Clearly, then, to be in potency is taken in two senses (the first and second); and to be in act is also taken in two senses (the second and third).
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362. Deinde cum dicit: ambo quidem igitur etc., ostendit quomodo de utraque potentia aliquid reducitur in actum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
362. Then, where he says, therefore the first two (417a30), he explains how each of these potencies is brought to act. And concerning this, he does two things.
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primo ostendit quomodo de utraque potentia aliquid in actum reducitur;
First, he shows how both these types of potency are actualized;
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secundo ostendit utrum talis reductio sit secundum aliquam passionem, ibi: non est autem simpliciter neque pati etc.
second, at nor is being acted upon (417b2; [365]), he discusses whether this actualization is the result of a being acted upon.
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Dicit ergo primo, quod cum ambo primi sint scientes secundum potentiam et id quod est in potentia reducatur in actum, alio modo reducitur in actum aliquis de potentia prima et aliter de secunda;
First, then, he remarks that while in the first two cases there is knowing in potency and that which is reduced to act, there is a difference, in respect of actualization, between a first and a second potency.
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nam qui est in potentia primo modo reducitur in actum quasi alteratus per doctrinam et motus ab aliquo alio existente in actu, sicut a magistro, et multoties talis mutatio est ex contrario habitu (quod ideo dicit quia, cum aliquis reducitur de potentia prima in actum, ex ignorante fit sciens;
For one in potency in the first way is brought into act through being, as it were, altered through teaching, and being moved by someone else who is already in act (the teacher). And often, he says, this change is from the contrary state, alluding to those who come to actual knowledge from a state of ignorance.
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363. ignorans autem dicitur dupliciter: uno modo secundum simplicem negationem, quando nec veritate cogitur nec contrario errore detinetur, et qui sic ignorans est fit actu sciens non quod mutatus de contrario habitu, sed solum sicut acquirens scientiam;
363. “Ignorance” is spoken of in two ways. In one way, it can be purely negative, when the ignorant person neither knows the truth nor is involved in the opposite error; and in this case he is simply brought into actual knowledge, not changed by being rid of a contrary habit.
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alio modo dicitur aliquis ignorans secundum pravam dispositionem, utpote quia detinetur errore contrario veritati, et hic in actum scientiae reducitur quasi de contrario habitu mutatus);
On the other hand, one is called “ignorant” in a different way, according to a bad disposition, insofar as he is involved in error contrary to the truth; and in this way to acquire knowledge, then, is to be changed from a contrary habit.
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364. qui vero est in potentia secundo modo, ut scilicet iam habens habitum, transit ex eo quod habet sensum aut scientiam et non agit secundum ea, in agere, quia scilicet fit agens secundum scientiam; sed alio modo iste fit actu, et alio modo primus.
364. But one in potency in the second sense—that is, as already possessing the habit—passes from having sense or knowledge but not exercising it, to activity, because he becomes active as regards the knowledge. And he becomes actual in a different way from the first.
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365. Deinde cum dicit: non est autem simpliciter, manifestat utrum, secundum quod aliquid educitur de potentia in actum scientiae primo modo vel secundo, possit dici pati. Et circa hoc duo facit:
365. Then, at nor is being acted upon (417b2), he discusses the question whether both kinds of actualization can be called “being acted upon.” And about this, he does two things.
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primo ostendit quot modis dicitur pati;
First, he explains the different ways in which something is said to be acted upon.
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secundo manifestat propositum, ibi: speculans autem fit habens scientiam etc.
Second, at for when a man possessed of (417b5; [367]), he applies these distinctions to the present problem.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, sicut potentia et actus non dicuntur simpliciter, sed multipliciter, ita et pati non uno modo, sed multipliciter.
First, then, he remarks that just as potency and act are not spoken of in a simple way, but in many ways, so to be acted upon is not in one way, but in many.
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Dicitur enim pati uno modo secundum quamdam corruptionem quae fit a contrario (passio enim proprie dicta videtur importare quoddam detrimentum patientis inquantum vincitur ab agente; detrimentum autem patienti accidit secundum quod aliquid a patiente abiicitur, quae quidem abiectio corruptio quaedam est vel simpliciter, sicut quando abiicitur forma substantialis, vel secundum quid, sicut quando abiicitur forma accidentalis; huiusmodi autem formae abiectio fit a contrario agente: abiicitur enim forma a materia vel subiecto per introductionem contrariae formae, et hoc est a contrario agente); primo igitur modo proprie dicitur passio secundum quod quaedam corruptio fit a contrario.
In one sense, “being acted upon” (pati) implies some kind of destruction caused by a contrary. For in the strict sense, “suffering” (passio) seems to connote, on the side of the one being acted upon (patientis), a certain loss of something, insofar as it is overcome by the agent; and this loss to the one acted upon occurs insofar as something is cast out of the one acted upon and something is somehow destroyed, either simply speaking, as when substantial form is lost, or in a certain respect, as in the loss of an accidental form. And the loss of form comes from a contrary agent; for the form is removed from the matter or subject through the introduction of a contrary form, from a contrary agent. In the first sense, then, “suffering” properly speaking means being somehow destroyed by a contrary.
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366. Alio modo passio communis dicitur minus proprie, secundum scilicet quod importat quamdam receptionem; et quia quod est receptivum alterius comparatur ad ipsum sicut potentia ad actum, actus autem est perfectio potentiae, ideo hoc modo dicitur passio non secundum quod fit quaedam corruptio patientis, sed magis secundum quod fit quaedam salus, id est perfectio, eius quod est in potentia ab eo quod est in actu:
366. In another sense, something is called a “suffering” (passio) in a common sense but less properly, that is, any reception of something. And because a receiver is to what it receives as potency to act, and actuality is the perfection of potency, so “suffering” is said in this way, not according to a certain corruption of the patient taking place, but rather there is more the preservation, that is, the perfection, of what is in potency by what is in act.
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quod enim est in potentia non perficitur nisi per id quod est actu; quod autem est in actu non est contrarium ei quod est in potentia inquantum huiusmodi, sed magis simile (nam potentia nihil aliud est quam quidam ordo ad actum, nisi autem esset aliqua similitudo inter potentiam et actum, non esset necessarium quod proprius actus fieret in propria potentia), passio igitur sic dicta non est a contrario sicut passio primo modo dicta, sed est a simili, eo modo quo potentia se habet secundum similitudinem ad actum.
For only the actual can perfect the potential, and actuality is not, as such, contrary to potency; indeed, the two are really similar, for potency is nothing other than a certain order to act. (And without this likeness between act and potency, there would be no necessity that a proper act come to be in its proper potency.) Hence, “suffering” spoken of in this way does not occur due to a contrary, as was the case with “suffering” spoken of in the first way; rather, it occurs due to a thing that is like it, in the sense that a potency stands relative to act in likeness.
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367. Deinde cum dicit: speculans autem fit etc., manifestat utrum quod educitur de potentia in actum scientiae patiatur.
367. Next, at when a man possessed of (417b5), Aristotle discusses whether being led from potency into the act of knowledge is being acted upon.
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Et primo manifestat hoc circa hoc quod educitur de secunda potentia in actum purum;
And he first discusses that which is led from second potency into pure act;
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secundo autem manifestat hoc circa hoc quod educitur de potentia prima in habitum, ibi: ex potentia autem etc.
second, at but the change from being in potency (417b12; [369]), he discusses that which is led from first potency into the habit of knowledge.
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Dicit ergo primo quod habens scientiam, id est habitualiter sciens, fit actu speculans, sed hoc aut non est vere et proprie alterari et pati (quia, ut dictum est, non est proprie passio et alteratio cum de potentia procedit in actum, sed cum aliquid de contrario mutatur in contrarium; cum autem habitualiter sciens fit speculans actu, non mutatur de contrario in contrarium, sed perficitur in eo quod iam habet; et hoc est quod dicit quod est additio in ipsum et in actum: additur enim ei perfectio secundum quod proficit in actum), aut si dicatur alterari et pati, erit aliud genus alterationis et passionis non proprie dictae. Et hoc manifestat per exemplum, dicens quod non bene se habet dicere sapientem habitualiter, cum sapiat actu, alterari, sicut neque dicimus aedificatorem alterari cum aedificat.
Now, as to the former point, he asserts that one possessed of knowledge, that is, habitually knowing, actually thinks, but this is certainly and properly speaking not a being altered and acted upon (pati). For, as we have seen, suffering (passio) and alteration are not when one progresses from potency to act, but when something is changed from contrary to contrary. But when one who knows habitually comes to actually think, he is not being changed from contrary to contrary; rather, he is being perfected in what he already has. As Aristotle says here, it is an advance into itself, and into actuality; for the perfection is being added to him insofar as he progresses into act. Or, if it is going to be referred to as “being altered” and “being acted upon,” it will be a distinct genus of alteration and suffering, one that is not being said properly. And to illustrate the point, he adds that it is not well said to say that a habitually wise man is “altered” when he thinks in act, as neither do we say that the builder is altered when he builds.
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368. Concludit autem ulterius quod, cum ille qui transit de habitu in actum non accipiat de novo scientiam, sed proficiat et perficiatur in eo quod habet, doceri autem est scientiam accipere, manifestum est quod cum ducitur aliquis de potentia in actum secundum hoc quod [incipit] facit eum intelligere actu et sapere, non est iustum quod talis exitus de potentia in actum habeat denominationem doctrinae, sed aliquam aliam, quae quidem forte non est posita, sed potest poni.
368. A further conclusion: if it be granted that when one passes from habit to act, he does not newly receive knowledge, but rather he progresses and is perfected in what he has, whereas to be taught is to receive knowledge, therefore, when a man is brought from potency to act as regards actually understanding and thinking, not rightly does such a going forward from potency to act hold the name “instruction,” but something else, though perhaps no other name has in fact been found for it, even though it could be.
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369. Deinde cum dicit: ex potentia autem ente addiscens etc., manifestat utrum, cum aliquis exit de prima potentia in actum scientiae, alteretur et patiatur. Et dicit quod, cum aliquis prius sciens in potentia tantum fit addiscens et accipiens scientiam ab eo qui est actu sciens et a magistro, vel non debet dici pati simpliciter et alterari, aut dicendum est esse duos modos alterationis,
369. Then, at but the change from being in potency (417b12), he discusses whether, when someone passes from first potency into the act of knowledge, he is altered and acted upon. He says that when a learner, previously knowing only potentially, learns and receives knowledge from one who actually knows and is a teacher, this either should not be called a being acted upon, or else one should say that there are two modes of alteration.
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quarum una est secundum mutationem in privativas dispositiones, id est in dispositiones contrarias quibus privantur dispositiones prius existentes, quia unum contrariorum est privatio alterius;
One of these is a change to a privative disposition, that is, to a contrary disposition whereby a previously existing disposition is taken away, since the one contrary is the privation of the other.
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alia vero est secundum mutationem in habitum et naturam, id est secundum quod recipiuntur aliqui habitus et formae quae sunt perfectiones naturae absque eo quod aliquid abiiciatur. Ille igitur qui addiscit scientiam non alteratur neque patitur primo modo, sed secundo.
The other is by a change to a possession and nature, that is, through receiving the habits and forms that are perfections of the nature and involve no loss of what it already has. And the one who learns knowledge, therefore, is neither being altered nor acted upon in the first mode, but only in this second sense.
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370. Videtur autem contrarium quod supra dixit quod multoties qui addiscit scientiam mutatus est a contrario habitu et ita videtur quod sit alteratio secundum mutationem in privativas dispositiones.
370. Now, this seems to contradict what was said above, that a learner is often altered from a contrary state, and thus, it would seem, that it is an alteration according to a change to a privative disposition.
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Sed dicendum quod, cum aliquis ab errore reducitur ad scientiam veritatis, est ibi quaedam similitudo alterationis quae est de contrario ad contrarium, non tamen vere est ibi talis alteratio. Nam alterationi quae est de contrario in contrarium utrumque per se et essentialiter competit, scilicet et quod sit a contrario et quod sit in contrarium; sicut enim dealbatio non est nisi ad album, ita non est nisi a nigro vel medio, quod respectu albi est quodammodo nigrum. Sed in acquisitione scientiae accidit quod ille qui acquirit scientiam veritatis prius fuerit in errore: absque hoc enim potest adduci ad scientiam veritatis; unde non est vere alteratio de contrario in contrarium.
But one should say that, when one is brought from error to the knowledge of truth, there is indeed a certain likeness to the alteration from contrary to contrary, but this is still not truly an alteration. For where there is true alteration from contrary to contrary, both contraries are involved through themselves and essentially; for example, becoming white involves not only white, but also black, or some intermediary color which in relation to white is a sort of blackness. But where knowledge is acquired, it is accidental that the learner was previously in error, for he could be led to the knowledge of the truth without this. Hence it is not truly an alteration from contrary to contrary.
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371. Item, dubitatur de hoc quod dicit quod ille qui accipit scientiam fit actu sciens a sciente in actu et magistro. Hoc enim non semper fit: scientiam enim aliquis acquirit non solum addiscendo a magistro, sed etiam per se inveniendo. Et ad hoc dicendum est quod semper oportet quod, cum aliquis est potentia sciens, si fiat actu habens scientiam, oportet quod hoc sit ab eo quod est actu.
371. Another difficulty occurs where he says that the learner becomes an actual knower because of one who actually knows and is a teacher. For it does not always happen thus; a man may acquire knowledge not only by learning from a teacher, but also by finding out for himself. To this we reply that whenever a potential knower becomes an actual knower, he must indeed be actualized by what is already in act.
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Considerandum tamen est quod aliquid reducitur aliquando de potentia in actum ab extrinseco principio tantum, sicut aer illuminatur ab eo quod est actu lucidum, quandoque autem et a principio intrinseco, sicut homo sanatur et a natura et a medico; utrobique autem sanatur a sanitate in actu: manifestum est enim quod in mente medici est ratio sanitatis secundum quam sanat; oportet etiam in eo qui sanatur secundum naturam esse aliquam partem sanam, scilicet cor, cuius virtute aliae partes sanantur; et cum medicus sanat, hoc modo sanat sicut natura sanaret, scilicet calefaciendo aut infrigidando aut aliter transmutando, unde medicus nihil aliud facit quam quod auxiliatur naturae ad expellendum morbum, quo auxilio natura non egeret si fortis esset.
But note that something is brought from potency to act sometimes from only an extrinsic principle, as when air is lit up by an already actual light, but sometimes by an intrinsic cause as well, as a man is healed both by nature and by a doctor. In this latter case, both causes of healing are health in act; for obviously the account of health exists in the mind of the doctor (in virtue of which he can heal) and, in one who is healed naturally, it must also be in some healthy part (that is, the heart), in virtue of which the rest of the man recovers health. And when the doctor heals he does it as nature would do it, such as by heating or cooling or in changing one in some other way. Thus a doctor does nothing other than help nature drive out sickness; if nature were strong enough, she would not need this help.
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372. Eodem autem modo se habet in acquisitione scientiae: homo enim acquirit scientiam et a principio intrinseco, dum invenit, et a principio extrinseco, dum addiscit; utrobique autem reducitur de potentia in actum ab eo quod est actu: homo enim per lumen intellectus agentis statim cognoscit actu prima principia naturaliter cognita et, dum ex eis conclusiones elicit, per hoc quod actu scit venit in actualem cognitionem eorum quae potentia sciebat; et eodem modo docens exterius ei auxiliatur ad sciendum, scilicet ex principiis addiscenti notis deducens eum per demonstrationem in conclusiones prius ignotas, quod quidem auxilium homini necessarium non esset si adeo esset perspicacis intellectus quod per seipsum posset ex principiis notis conclusiones elicere, quae quidem perspicacitas hominibus adest secundum plus et minus.
372. And the case is the same when a man acquires knowledge. For a man acquires knowledge both from an intrinsic principle, when he discovers something, and an extrinsic principle, as when he learns. But in both cases, a potency is actualized by something already in act. For a man, by the light of the agent intellect, right away actually knows the first principles that are naturally known, and, when he elicits conclusions from them, from what he actually knows he comes to actual knowledge of things that he previously knew potentially. In like manner, too, a teacher can help him from the outside towards knowledge, leading him, from principles already known to the student, to conclusions previously unknown, by way of demonstration. Nor would this external aid be necessary if the human intellect were so insightful that it could through itself elicit conclusions from the principles it knows; and, indeed, this insightfulness is present in men in varying degrees.
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L. 12 (B.5, 417b16–418a6)Actualizations of sense and intellect compared
Quam differenter ab intellectu sensus educatur de potentia in actum, ostendit; et ea, quae dixit, epilogat
Actualizations of sense and intellect compared
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Sensitivi autem prima quidem mutatio fit a generante; cum autem generatum est, habet iam sicut scientiam et sentire; quod autem secundum actum similiter dicitur ipsi considerare.
The first change in the sensitive being is caused by the parent. When it is generated, it is already endowed with sense, like knowledge. But actual sensation is said to be like thinking itself.
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Differt autem, quia huius quidem activa operationis extra sunt, visibile et audibile, similiter autem et reliqua sensibilium. Causa autem est quoniam singularium qui secundum actum sensus, scientia autem universalium; haec enim in ipsa quodam modo sunt anima. Unde intelligere in ipsa est cum velit, sentire autem non est in ipsa: necessarium autem est esse sensibile. Similiter autem et hoc se habet in scientiis sensibilium et propter eandem causam, quia sensibilia singularium sunt et exteriorum. Sed de his quidem certificare tempus fiet et in rursum.
They differ, however, because what actuates sense-activities—namely, the visible, the audible, and so on—is from outside. The cause of this difference is that actual sensation is of particulars, but scientific knowledge is of universals, which are, in a way, within the soul itself; hence, the act of the intellect is interior and at will, whereas sensation is not from within the soul, and requires that a sense-object be presented. The same holds good of the sciences which concern sense-objects and for the same reason, i.e., that sense-objects belong to singular and external things. But there will be time later to deal with these more conclusively.
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Nunc autem tantum sit diffinitum, quoniam cum non simpliciter sit quod potentia dicitur, sed aliud quidem sicut si dicamus puerum posse militare, aliud autem sicut in etate existentem, sic se habet sensitivum. Quoniam autem innominata est ipsorum differentia, determinatum autem est de ipsis quoniam altera et quomodo altera, uti autem necesse est ipso pati et alterari tanquam propriis nominibus: sensitivum potentia est quale iam actu sensibile, sicut dictum est. Patitur quidem igitur non simile ens, passum autem assimilatum est et est quale illud.
For the present, it is sufficiently established that “in potency” is not spoken of in a simple way, but it means one thing when, for example, we say that a child is able to be a soldier, and quite another thing when we say this of an adult. The same holds of the sensitive power. Since, however, this distinction has no name, and yet it is settled that the two differ, and in what way, it is necessary to use the expressions “to be acted upon” and “to be altered” as if they were precise terms. The sensitive power is potentially that which the sense-object is actually, as we have said. It is acted upon insofar as it is not like; it becomes like in being acted upon, and it is then such as is the other.
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373. Sensitivi autem prima, etc. Postquam philosophus distinxit potentiam et actum et ostendit quomodo aliquid de potentia in actum exeat circa intellectum, quod dixerat de intellectu adaptat ad sensum. Et circa hoc tria facit:
373. The first change in the sensitive being (417b16). After distinguishing between potency and act and elucidating in terms of intellectual activity the movement from one state to the other, the Philosopher now applies what he has said to sensation. And about this he does three things.
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primo ostendit quomodo circa sensum aliquid educitur de potentia in actum;
First, he shows how something is brought forth from potency to act in sensing.
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secundo ostendit differentiam inter sensum et intellectum, ibi: differunt autem quia huius quidem accidentia etc.;
Second, at they differ, however (417b19; [375]), he explains the difference between sense and intellect.
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tertio colligit epilogando quae dixerat de sensu, ibi: nunc autem [in] tantum.
Third, at for the present, it is sufficiently established (417b29; [381]), he recapitulates what has been said about sensation.
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Considerandum est circa primum quod, sicut in scientia est duplex potentia et duplex actus, ita est et circa sensum:
Regarding the first point, we must take into account that, as in knowledge, so too in sensation, there are two kinds of potency and of act.
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nam quod nondum habet sensum et natum est habere, est in potentia ad sensum, et quod iam habet sensum et nondum sentit, est potentia sentiens, sicut circa scientiam dicebatur.
For what so far possesses no sense power but is naturally apt to have one is in potency to the sense power; and what already has the sense power, but does not yet sense, is in potency to sensing, in the same way as we have seen in the case of knowledge.1
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Sicut autem de potentia prima aliquid mutatur in primum actum dum acquirit scientiam per doctrinam, ita de prima potentia ad sensum aliquid mutatur in actum, ut scilicet habeat sensum, per generationem:
Now, as a subject moves from first potency into first actuality when it acquires knowledge through teaching, so too, a subject’s first potency to the possession of a sense power is actualized by his generation.
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sensus enim naturaliter inest animali, unde sicut per generationem acquirit propriam naturam et speciem, ita acquirit sensum. Secus autem est de scientia quae non inest homini per naturam, sed acquiritur per intentionem et disciplinam.
For the sense power is naturally present in every animal, so that just as in its generation it acquires its own proper nature and species, so too, it acquires its senses. But the case is not the same with intellectual knowledge; it is not present in man by nature, but it is acquired through application and learning.
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374. Hoc est ergo quod dicit quod prima mutatio sensitivi fit a generante (nominat autem primam mutationem quae est de pura potentia in actum primum; haec autem mutatio fit a generante, nam per virtutem quae est in semine educitur anima sensitiva de potentia in actum cum omnibus suis potentiis); cum autem animal iam generatum est, tunc hoc modo habet sensum sicut aliquis habet scientiam quando iam didicit; sed quando iam sentit secundum actum, tunc se habet sicut ille qui iam actu considerat.
374. This is what he means by saying that the first change in the sensitive being is caused by the parent (417b16). This first change, he explains, is from pure potency to the first actuality, and it is due to the parent because there is a power in the seed to actualize the sensitive soul with all its capacities. When an animal has been generated, it is already endowed with its senses in the same way as a man who has been taught possesses knowledge. And actual sensation corresponds to the man who actually exercises his knowledge by thinking.
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375. Deinde cum dicit: differt autem etc., quia posuerat similitudinem inter sentire in actu et considerare, vult ostendere differentiam inter ea. Cuius quidem differentiae causam assignare incipit ex differentia obiectorum, scilicet sensibilium et intelligibilium, quae sentiuntur et considerantur in actu: sensibilia enim quae sunt activa operationis sensitivae, scilicet visibile et audibile et alia huiusmodi, sunt extra animam. Cuius causa est quia sensus secundum actum sunt singularium, quae sunt extra animam, sed scientia est universalium, quae quodammodo sunt in anima.
375. Then, at they differ, however (417b19), he sets himself to discriminate between actual sensation and thinking; and he finds the first reason for distinguishing these activities in the difference between their objects, that is, the sense-objects and intelligible objects, the things that are actually sensed and considered. For the sense-object, which actuates sense-activities—namely, the visible, the audible, and so on—is from outside the soul. The cause of this difference is that actual sensation is of particulars, which exist outside the soul; but scientific knowledge is of universals, which are, in a way, within the soul itself.
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Ex quo patet quod ille qui iam habet scientiam non oportet quod quaerat extra sua obiecta, sed habet ea in se, unde potest considerare ea cum vult, nisi per accidens impediatur; sed sentire non potest aliquis cum vult, quia sensibilia non habet in se, sed oportet quod adsint ei extra.
Whence it is clear that one who already has scientific knowledge does not need to seek his objects outside himself; he already possesses them inwardly, and hence, he is able, unless prevented accidentally, to think about them at will, whenever he wishes to do so. But sensation is not possible for someone whenever he wishes, because he does not have the sense-objects within himself, but rather they must be present outside him.
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376. Et sicut est de operatione sensuum, ita est in scientiis sensibilium, quia etiam sensibilia sunt de numero singularium et eorum quae sunt extra animam; unde homo non potest considerare secundum scientiam omnia sensibilia quae vult, sed illa tantum quae sensu percipit. Sed secundum certitudinem determinare de his, iterum erit tempus, scilicet in III ubi agetur de intellectu et de comparatione intellectus ad sensum.
376. And as with sense-activities, so with the sciences which concern sense-objects; for the sense-objects are of the number of singulars and things external to the soul. Therefore, a man cannot speculate scientifically on any sense-objects that he wishes, but only on such as he perceives by sensation. But there will be time to treat conclusively of these matters later on, in book 3, where we discuss the intellect and its relation to the senses.1
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377. Circa ea vero quae hic dicuntur, considerandum est
377. Concerning what is said here, we have to ask ourselves:
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quare sensus sit singularium, scientia vero universalium,
why sensation is of individual things, whereas science is of universals;
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et quomodo universalia sint in anima.
and how exactly universals exist in the soul.
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Sciendum est igitur circa primum quod sensus est virtus in organo corporali, intellectus vero est virtus immaterialis quae non est actus alicuius organi corporalis. Unumquodque autem recipitur in aliquo per modum <ipsius et non per modum> sui. Cognitio autem omnis fit per hoc quod cognitum est aliquo modo in cognoscente, scilicet secundum similitudinem: nam cognoscens in actu est ipsum cognitum in actu. Oportet igitur quod sensus corporaliter recipiat similitudinem rei quae sentitur, intellectus autem recipit similitudinem eius quod intelligitur incorporaliter et immaterialiter. Individuatio autem naturae communis in rebus corporalibus et materialibus est ex materia corporali sub determinatis dimensionibus contenta; universale autem est per abstractionem ab huiusmodi materia et materialibus conditionibus individuantibus. Manifestum est igitur quod similitudo rei recepta in sensu repraesentat rem secundum quod est singularis, recepta autem in intellectu repraesentat rem secundum rationem universalis naturae. Et inde est quod sensus cognoscit singularia, intellectus vero universalia; et horum sunt scientiae.
As to the first, we should note that sensation is a power in a bodily organ, whereas intellect is an immaterial power—it is not the actuality of any bodily organ. Now, everything received is received in the mode of the receiver, and not through its own mode. But all knowledge occurs through the thing known being somehow present in the knower (that is, present according to its likeness); for the knower in act is the thing known in act. Therefore the sense power receives in a bodily way the likeness of the reality being sensed, whereas the intellect receives in an incorporeal and immaterial way the likeness of the thing understood. Now, in material and corporeal realities, the common nature derives its individuation from matter contained under determinate dimensions, whereas the universal exists through an abstraction from such matter and the individuating material conditions. Clearly, then, a thing’s likeness as received in sensation represents the reality insofar as it is an individual; as received, however, in the intellect, it represents the reality according to the account of the universal nature. That is why individuals are known by the senses, and universals (of which are the sciences) by the intellect.
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378. Circa secundum vero considerandum est quod universale potest accipi dupliciter: uno modo potest dici universale ipsa natura communis prout subiacet intentioni universalitatis, alio modo secundum se; sicut et album potest accipi dupliciter, vel id cui accidit esse album, vel ipsummet secundum quod subest albedini.
378. As to the second, note that the term “universal” can be taken in two senses. It can refer to the common nature itself insofar as it underlies the intention of universality; or it can refer to the universal taken in itself. As, for example, in a white thing, we can consider either the thing that happens to be white or the thing itself precisely as existing under whiteness.
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Ista autem natura cui advenit intentio universalitatis, puta natura hominis, habet duplex esse: unum quidem materiale secundum quod est in materia naturali; aliud autem immateriale secundum quod est in intellectu. Secundum igitur quod habet esse in materia naturali, non potest ei advenire intentio universalitatis, quia per materiam individuatur; advenit igitur ei universalitatis intentio secundum quod abstrahitur a materia individuali. Non est autem possibile quod abstrahatur a materia individuali realiter, sicut Platonici posuerunt: non enim est homo nisi in his carnibus et in his ossibus, sicut philosophus probat in VII Metaphysicae. Relinquitur igitur quod natura humana non habet esse praeter principia individuantia, nisi tantum in intellectu.
Now, a nature—say, human nature—to which the intention of universality accrues has two modes of existence: one, material, insofar as it exists in its natural matter; the other, immaterial, insofar as it exists in the intellect. Therefore, insofar as it exists in its natural matter, the intention of universality cannot come to it, for it is individuated by matter; therefore, the intention of universality comes to it insofar as it is abstracted from individual matter. But it cannot exist in a real way as abstracted from individual matter, as the Platonists thought; for man exists only in this flesh and these bones, as the Philosopher proves in Metaphysics 7.1 Therefore, it is only in the intellect that human nature has any being apart from the principles which individuate it.
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379. Nec tamen intellectus est falsus dum apprehendit naturam communem praeter principia individuantia sine quibus esse non potest in rerum natura: non enim apprehendit hoc intellectus quod natura communis sit sine principiis individuantibus, sed apprehendit naturam communem non apprehendendo principia individuantia et hoc non est falsum, primum autem esset falsum; sicut si ab homine albo separarem albedinem hoc modo quod intelligerem eum non esse album, esset apprehensio falsa, si autem sic separarem albedinem ab homine quod apprehenderem hominem nihil apprehendendo de albedine eius, non esset apprehensio falsa: non enim exigitur ad veritatem apprehensionis quod qui apprehendit rem aliquam apprehendat omnia quae insunt ei. Sic igitur intellectus absque falsitate abstrahit genus a speciebus inquantum intelligit naturam generis non intelligendo differentias, et similiter abstrahit speciem ab individuis inquantum intelligit naturam speciei non intelligendo individualia principia.
379. Nevertheless, the intellect is not false when it apprehends a common nature apart from its individuating principles, without which it cannot exist in the nature of things; for the intellect does not apprehend that the common nature exists without the individuating principles, whereas it does apprehend the common nature without apprehending the individuating principles, and in this there is no falsehood. The alternative would indeed be false—just as, were I to separate whiteness from a white man such that I would understand him not to be white, this too would be a false apprehension; but if I were to separate the whiteness from the man such that I were apprehending man while apprehending nothing about his whiteness, that would not be a false apprehension. For the truth of an apprehension does not require that in merely apprehending some reality, we apprehend everything in it. Hence in this way the intellect abstracts, without any falsehood, a genus from the species insofar as it understands the nature of the genus without understanding the differences; or it may abstract the species from individuals insofar as it understands the nature of the species without understanding individuating principles.
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380. Sic igitur patet quod naturae communi non potest attribui intentio universalitatis nisi secundum esse quod habet in intellectu: sic enim solum est unum de multis, prout intelligitur praeter principia quibus unum in multa dividitur. Unde relinquitur quod universalia secundum quod sunt universalia non sunt nisi in anima, ipsae autem naturae quibus accidit intentio universalitatis sunt in rebus. Et propter hoc nomina communia significantia naturas ipsas praedicantur de individuis, non autem nomina significantia intentiones: Sortes enim est homo, sed non est species, quamvis homo sit species.
380. It is clear, then, that the intention of universality can be attributed to a common nature only according to the existence that it has in the intellect. For a unity to be predicable of many things, it must first be conceived apart from the principles by which it is divided into many things. Whence, one concludes that universals as universal exist only in the soul, but the natures themselves, to which accrue the intention of universality, exist in the realities. That is why the common names that signify these very natures are predicated of individuals but the names that signify the intentions do not. For Socrates is a man, but he is not a species—even though man is a species.
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381. Deinde cum dicit: nunc autem tantum etc., recolligit quod dictum est de sensu. Et dicit quod nunc tantum sit definitum quod non simpliciter dicitur id quod est in potentia, sed multipliciter: uno enim modo dicimus puerum posse militare secundum potentiam remotam; alio modo dicimus posse militare quando iam est in aetate perfecta, et hoc secundum potentiam propinquam; et similiter se habet in sensitivo: dupliciter enim est aliquis in potentia in sentiendo, ut iam dictum est. Et licet non sint nomina propria posita quibus differentia harum potentiarum ostendatur, tamen determinatum est quod istae potentiae sunt alterae ab invicem et quomodo sint alterae
381. Finally, at for the present (417b29), he recapitulates his remarks on sensation and observes that for the present, it is sufficiently established that what we say is in potency is not spoken of in a simple way. It is in one sense that we say that a child is able to be a soldier, that is, by a remote potency. But in another sense, we say that an adult can be a soldier, that is, by a proximate potency. And the same distinction applies to sense-perception, as we have seen there are two ways of being in potency to sensing anything. Though we have found no proper names to express this distinction of these potencies, it is settled, nevertheless, that the two potencies differ, and in what way they differ.
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382. et, licet alterari et pati non proprie dicatur aliquid secundum quod exit de potentia secunda in actum, puta prout habens sensum fit actu sentiens, tamen necesse est uti hoc ipso quod est pati et alterari ac si essent nomina propria et convenientia, quia sensitivum in potentia est quale est actu sensibile. Et propter hoc sequitur quod secundum quod patitur a principio non est simile sensus sensibili, sed secundum quod iam est passum, est iam assimilatum sensibili et est tale quale est illud. Quod quia distinguere nescierunt antiqui, posuerunt sensum esse compositum ex sensibilibus.
382. And in spite of the fact that something is not properly speaking said “to be altered” and “to be acted upon” inasmuch as it passes from the second potency into act, that is, insofar as what has the sense comes to be actually sensing, yet it is necessary to use the expressions “to be acted upon” and “to be altered” as if they were proper and fitting names; and this is because the sensitive power is potentially that which the sense-object is actually. It follows that, while at the beginning of being acted upon, the sense is not like its object, in being acted upon it now becomes like the sensible object and it is such as the other is. It was because they failed to make this distinction that the earlier philosophers thought that sense powers were composed of the sensible objects.
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L. 13 (B.6, 418a7–418a26)Sense-objects in general
Primum de sensibilibus uniuscuiusque sensus dicendum esse proponit. Deinde sensibilia dividit in tria: in sensibilia per accidens, et sensibilia per se, quorum alia propria, alia communia iure sunt appellata
Sense-objects in general
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Dicendum autem secundum unumquemque sensum de sensibilibus primo. Dicitur autem sensibile tripliciter, quorum duo quidem dicimus per se sentiri, unum autem secundum accidens; duorum autem aliud quidem proprium est uniuscuiusque sensus, aliud vero commune omnium.
In treating of each sense, we must first discuss sense-objects. We speak of a sense-object in three ways: two of which we say are sensed through themselves, but one accidentally. Of the two former, one is proper to each sense, the other common to all.
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Dico autem proprium quidem quod non contingit altero sensu sentiri, et circa quod non contingit errare, ut visus coloris et auditus soni et gustus humoris, tactus autem habet plures differentias.
Now, I call the proper object of a sense that which does not fall within the ambit of another sense and about which it cannot err, as sight is of color, and hearing of sound, and taste of flavor, while touch has several different objects.
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Sed unusquisque iudicat de his et non decipitur quoniam color neque quoniam sonus, sed quid coloratum aut ubi aut quid sonans. Huiusmodi quidem igitur dicuntur propria uniuscuiusque.
Each particular sense can discern these objects and it is not deceived; thus, sight does not err as to color, nor hearing as to sound, though it might err about what is colored, or where it is, or about what is giving forth a sound. This, then, is what is meant by the proper objects of each sense.
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Communia autem motus, quies, numerus, figura, magnitudo; huiusmodi enim nullius unius sunt propria, sed communia omnibus: tactui enim motus aliquis sensibilis et visui. Per se quidem igitur sunt sensibilia haec.
Now, the common sense-objects are movement, rest, number, shape, magnitude. Such things are proper to no one sense but are common to all; thus a certain movement is sensible both by touch and by sight. These, then, are through themselves objects of sensation.
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Secundum accidens autem dicitur sensibile, ut si album sit Diarris: secundum accidens enim hoc sentitur, quoniam accidit albo hoc quod sentitur. Unde nihil patitur, secundum quod huiusmodi est, a sensibili. Sensibilium autem secundum se propria proprie sensibilia sunt, et ad quae substantia apta nata est uniuscuiusque sensus.
However, that is said to be a sense-object accidentally, for example, if the white thing is the son of Diares. For this is sensed accidentally because what is sensed is accidental to the white. Whence the sense is unaffected by that sensible object as such. Of things that are sensible through themselves, the proper objects are sensible properly speaking and to these the substance of each sense is naturally adapted.
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383. Dicendum autem secundum unumquemque etc. Postquam philosophus ostendit quomodo se habet sensus ad sensibilia, incipit determinare de sensibili et sensu. Et dividitur in partes duas:
383. In treating of each sense (418a7). Having explained how the sense powers are related to their objects, the Philosopher now begins his examination of sensible objects and sense powers. This inquiry divides into two parts.
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in prima parte determinat de sensibilibus;
The first part is concerned with the sense-objects.
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in secunda de sensu, ibi: oportet autem universaliter de omni sensu etc.
The second, starting at it must be taken universally (424a17; [386]), is concerned with the sense powers.
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Prima dividitur in duas:
The first part again divides into two.
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in prima distinguit sensibilia propria ab aliis modis sensibilium;
First, he distinguishes the proper sense-objects from the rest.
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in secunda determinat de sensibilibus propriis secundum unumquemque sensum, ibi: cuius quidem est visus etc.
And second, at that of which there is sight (418a26; [399]), he examines the proper objects of each sense.
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Circa primum duo facit:
About the first, he does two things:
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primo ponit divisionem sensibilium;
first, he makes a division of the sense-objects;
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secundo exponit membra divisionis, ibi: dico autem proprium quidem etc.
second, at now, I call that the proper object (418a11; [384]), he explains the members of this division.
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Dicit ergo quod antequam determinetur de sensu quid sit, oportet primo dicere de sensibilibus secundum unumquemque sensum, quia obiecta sunt praevia potentiis. Sensibilia vero tribus modis dicuntur, uno quidem modo per accidens et duobus modis per se, quorum uno dicuntur sensibilia illa quae propria sint singulis sensibus, alio modo dicuntur sensibilia illa quae communiter sentiuntur ab omnibus sensibus.
Beginning, then, he observes that before we determine what a sense is, we first must discuss sense-objects, for objects are prior to their powers. Now, the term, “sensible,” or, “sense-object,” is used in three ways: in one way accidentally, and in two ways through itself; and of the latter, we use one in referring to the objects proper to each sense, and the other in referring to objects that are sensed commonly by all the senses.
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384. Deinde cum dicit: dico autem proprium etc., exponit membra divisionis. Et primo exponit quae sunt sensibilia propria et dicit quod sensibile proprium est quod ita sentitur uno sensu quod non potest alio sensu sentiri, et circa quod non potest errare sensus, sicut visus proprie est cognoscitivus coloris et auditus soni et gustus humoris, id est saporis; sed tactus habet plures differentias appropriatas sibi: cognoscit enim calidum et frigidum, humidum et siccum, grave et leve, et huiusmodi multa. Unusquisque autem horum sensuum iudicat de propriis sensibilibus et non decipitur in eis, sicut visus non decipitur quin sit talis color neque auditus decipitur de sono;
384. Then, at now, I call that (418a11), he explains the members of the division, and first, what he means by a proper sense-object. He says that he means by this term what is so sensed by one sense that it cannot be sensed by another sense, and about which it cannot err; thus, it is proper to sight to know color; to hearing, to know sound; to taste, to know flavor or savor. Touch, however, has several objects proper to itself—hot and cold, wet and dry, heavy and light, etc. Each sense can discern the objects proper to itself and is not deceived about these, for example, sight is not deceived that this is such and such a color, nor is hearing deceived about sound.
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385. sed circa sensibilia per accidens vel communia decipiuntur sensus, sicut decipitur visus si velit iudicare homo per ipsum quid est coloratum aut ubi sit, et similiter decipitur quis si velit iudicare per auditum quid est id quod sonat. Haec igitur sunt propria sensibilia uniuscuiusque sensus.
385. Though a sense can be deceived both about objects only accidentally sensible and about the common objects. For example, sight is deceived if a man wanted to discern by sight what is colored, or where it is; and likewise he is deceived if he wanted to discern by hearing alone what was causing a sound. Such, then, are the proper objects of each sense.
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386. Secundo ibi: communia autem etc., exponit secundum membrum divisionis, dicens quod communia sensibilia sunt ista quinque: motus, quies, numerus, figura et magnitudo; haec enim nullius unius sensus sunt propria, sed sunt communia omnibus. Quod non est sic intelligendum quasi omnia ista sint omnibus communia, sed quaedam horum, scilicet numerus, motus et quies, sunt communia omnibus sensibus, tactus vero et visus percipiunt omnia quinque. Sic igitur manifestum est quae sint sensibilia per se.
386. Next, at now, the common sense-objects (418a17), he says, touching the second member of the division, that the common sense-objects are five: movement, rest, number, shape, and magnitude. These are proper to no one sense but are common to all. This we must not take so as to mean that all these are common to all the senses, but that some of them, that is, number, movement, and rest, are common to all. But touch and sight perceive all five. It is clear, then, what are through themselves objects of sensation.
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387. Tertio ibi: secundum accidens autem etc., exponit tertium membrum divisionis et dicit quod secundum accidens sensibile dicitur ut si dicimus quod Diarris vel Socrates est sensibile per accidens, quia accidit ei esse album: hoc enim sentitur per accidens quod accidit ei quod sentitur per se; accidit autem albo, quod est sensibile per se, quod sit Diarris; unde Diarris est sensibile per accidens. Unde nihil patitur ab hoc inquantum huiusmodi. Quamvis autem sensibilia communia et sensibilia propria sint per se sensibilia, tamen propria sensibilia sunt proprie per se sensibilia, quia substantia uniuscuiusque sensus et eius definitio est in hoc quod est aptum natum pati a tali sensibili; ratio enim uniuscuiusque potentiae consistit in habitudine ad proprium obiectum.
387. Then, at however, that is said to be a sense-object accidentally (418a20), he takes the third member of the division. We might, he says, call Diares or Socrates a sense-object accidentally because each happens to be white, for that is sensed accidentally which happens to (or is accidental to) what is sensed through itself. It is accidental to the white thing, which is sensed through itself, that it should be Diares; hence Diares is a sense-object accidentally. Whence the sense is unaffected by this man as such. While it is true, however, that both common and proper sense-objects are all sensible through themselves, yet the proper objects are sensible properly speaking through themselves, for the very substance and definition of each sense consists in its being naturally fitted to be acted upon by this sort of sensible object. For the account of each and every power consists in an orientation to a proper object.
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388. Dubitatur autem hic de distinctione sensibilium communium a sensibilibus per accidens.
388. A difficulty arises here about the distinction between common and accidental sense-objects.
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Sicut enim sensibilia per accidens non apprehenduntur nisi inquantum sensibilia propria apprehenduntur, ita nec sensibilia communia: nunquam enim visus apprehendit magnitudinem aut figuram nisi inquantum apprehendit coloratum; videtur igitur quod sensibilia communia sunt etiam sensibilia per accidens.
For just as the latter are apprehended only insofar as the proper objects are apprehended, so too, the same is true of the common sense-objects: the eye would never apprehend magnitude or shape if it did not apprehend what is colored. It would seem, then, that the common sense-objects are also accidental sense-objects.
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389. Dicunt igitur quidam quod huiusmodi communia sensibilia non sunt sensibilia per accidens, propter duas rationes:
389. Now, there are some who base the distinction between common and accidental sense-objects upon two reasons.
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primo quidem quia huiusmodi sensibilia communia sunt propria sensui communi, sicut sensibilia propria sunt propria singulis sensibus;
First, they say that the common sense-objects are proper to the common sense, as the proper sense-objects are proper to the individual senses.
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secundo quia sensibilia propria non possunt esse sine sensibilibus communibus, possunt autem esse sine sensibilibus per accidens.
Second, that the proper sense-objects are inseparable from the common sense-objects, but not from the accidental sense-objects.
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390. Utraque autem responsio incompetens est.
390. But both answers are inadequate.
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Prima quidem quia falsum est quod ista sensibilia communia sunt propria obiecta sensus communis. Sensus enim communis est quaedam potentia ad quam terminantur immutationes omnium sensuum, ut infra patebit; unde impossibile est quod sensus communis habeat aliquod proprium obiectum quod non sit obiectum sensus proprii, sed circa ipsas immutationes sensuum propriorum a suis obiectis habet sensus communis aliquas operationes proprias quas sensus proprii habere non possunt, sicut quod percipit ipsas immutationes sensuum et discernit inter sensibilia diversorum sensuum: sensu enim communi percipimus nos videre et discernimus inter album et dulce.
The first is based on the fallacy that these common sense-objects are the proper object of the common sense. For, as we shall see later, the common sense is the power at which the modifications affecting all the particular senses terminate; hence it is impossible that it have as its proper object anything that is not an object of a proper sense.1 Rather, in reference to those very modifications of the proper senses, coming from their objects, the common sense has certain proper activities that the proper senses themselves cannot have; for example, it perceives the senses’ modifications themselves and it discerns between the sense-objects of the diverse senses. For it is by the common sense that we perceive our seeing and we distinguish between the white and the sweet.
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391. Praeterea, dato quod sensibilia communia essent propria obiecta sensus communis, non excluderetur quin essent per accidens sensibilia respectu sensuum propriorum: sic enim agitur hic de sensibilibus secundum quod habent habitudinem ad sensus proprios (nam potentia sensus communis nondum est declarata); quod autem est obiectum proprium alicuius interioris potentiae contingit esse per accidens sensibile, ut postea dicetur. Nec est mirum, quia quod est per se sensibile uni sensuum exteriorum, est per accidens sensibile respectu alterius, sicut dulce est per accidens visibile.
391. Moreover, even if it were granted that the common sense-objects were proper to the common sense, this would not prevent their being the accidental sense-objects of the proper senses. For we are still studying the sense-objects in relation to the proper senses; for the common sense has not yet been elucidated. As we shall see later, the proper object of an interior power may happen to be accidentally sensible. Nor is this strange; for even as regards the exterior senses, what is through itself sensible for one of these exterior senses is accidentally sensible relative to another, just as the sweet is accidentally visible.
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392. Secunda etiam ratio non est competens: non enim refert ad id quod est esse sensibile per accidens utrum id quod est subiectum sensibilis qualitatis sit per se subiectum eius vel non per se; nullus enim diceret ignem, quod est proprium subiectum caloris, esse per se sensibile tactu.
392. The second reason is also inadequate. For it is irrelevant to what is sensible accidentally whether what underlies a sensible quality underlies it through itself or not. For no one, for instance, would maintain that fire, which is properly speaking the underlying of heat, is through itself an object of touch.
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393. Et ideo aliter dicendum quod sentire consistit in quodam pati et alterari, ut supra dictum est, quicquid igitur facit differentiam in ipsa passione vel alteratione sensus habet per se habitudinem ad sensum et dicitur sensibile per se, quod autem nullam facit differentiam circa immutationem sensus dicitur sensibile per accidens. Unde et in littera dicit philosophus quod a sensibili per accidens nihil patitur sensus secundum quod huiusmodi.
393. So we must respond in another way, by saying that we have seen1 that sensing is a being acted upon and a being altered in some way. Whatever, then, makes a difference within the undergoing itself or alteration of the sense has, through itself, an orientation to the sense, and it is called “sensible through itself.” But whatever makes no difference as regards the modification of the sense is called an “sensible accidentally.” Hence, the Philosopher says explicitly that the sense is unaffected by the accidental object as such.
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394. Differentiam autem circa immutationem sensus potest aliquid facere dupliciter.
394. Now, something can make a difference in the modification of the sense in two ways.
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Uno modo quantum ad ipsam speciem agentis, et sic faciunt differentiam circa immutationem sensus sensibilia per se secundum quod hoc est color, illud autem est sonus, hoc autem est album, illud vero nigrum; ipsae enim species activorum in sensu sunt sensibilia propria ad quae habet naturalem aptitudinem potentia sensitiva et propter hoc secundum aliquam differentiam horum sensibilium diversificantur sensus.
One way is with respect to the very species of agent, and in this way things sensible through themselves make a modification of the sense, inasmuch as this is a color, whereas that is a sound, this is white, that is black. For the very species of the things acting in sensation are the proper sense-objects, to which the sensitive power has a natural aptitude, and on account of this the senses are divided in reference to some difference of these sense-objects.
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Quaedam vero alia faciunt differentiam in transmutatione sensuum non quantum ad speciem agentis sed quantum ad modum actionis: qualitates enim sensibiles movent sensum corporaliter et situaliter, unde aliter movent secundum quod sunt in maiori vel minori corpore et secundum quod sunt in diverso situ, scilicet vel propinquo vel remoto vel eodem vel diverso; et hoc modo faciunt circa immutationem sensuum differentiam sensibilia communia (manifestum est enim quod secundum omnia haec quinque diversificatur magnitudo vel situs) et quia non habent habitudinem ad sensum ut species activorum, ideo secundum ea non diversificantur potentiae sensitivae, sed remanent communia pluribus sensibus.
On the other hand, some things make a difference in the modification of the senses not according to the species of the agent, but according to the mode of the action. For sensible qualities move the senses corporeally and positionally, so they move them in different ways inasmuch as they are in a bigger or a smaller body, and insofar as they are in diverse positions, that is, near or far, or together or apart. And it is in this way that the common sensibles make a difference in the modification of the senses. For obviously magnitude and position vary for all five of these. And not being oriented to the senses as species of things that act on them, they do not properly differentiate the sense powers, but they remain common to several powers at once.
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395. Viso igitur quomodo dicantur per se sensibilia et communia et propria, restat videndum qua ratione dicatur aliquid sensibile per accidens.
395. Having seen how we should speak of things sensible through themselves, both common and proper, it remains to be seen for what reason anything is said to be a sensible accidentally.
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Sciendum est igitur quod ad hoc quod aliquid sit sensibile per accidens primo requiritur quod accidat ei quod est per se sensibile, sicut accidit albo esse hominem et accidit ei esse dulce,
Therefore one should note that for an object to be a sense-object accidentally, it must first be connected accidentally with what is a sense-object through itself; for example, a man may happen to be white, or a white thing happen to be sweet.
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secundo requiritur quod sit apprehensum a sentiente: si enim aliquid accideret sensibili quod lateret sentientem, non diceretur per accidens sentiri. Oportet igitur quod per se cognoscatur ab aliqua alia potentia cognoscitiva sentientis,
Second, it must be apprehended by the one sensing; for if something were connected with the sense-object while hidden from the one sensing, it could not be said to be sensed accidentally. But this implies that it is known through itself by some other cognitive power belonging to the one sensing it.
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et haec quidem vel est alius sensus, vel est intellectus, vel vis cogitativa aut vis aestimativa. Dico autem quod est alius sensus, sicut si dicamus quod dulce est visibile per accidens inquantum dulce <accidit albo quod apprehenditur visu, per se autem dulce> apprehenditur gustu.
Now, this latter power must be either another sense, or the intellect, or the cogitative power or estimative power. But by “another sense,” I mean as when we say that the sweet is accidentally visible inasmuch as a white thing, apprehended by sight, happens to be sweet, whereas the sweet is through itself apprehended by taste.
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396. Sed, ut proprie loquamur, hoc non est universaliter sensibile per accidens, sed per accidens visibile, sensibile autem per se.
396. But, speaking precisely, this is not universally accidentally a sense-object; rather, it is accidentally visible, but it is sensible through itself.
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Quod ergo sensu proprio non cognoscitur, si sit aliquid universale, apprehenditur intellectu. Non tamen omne quod intellectu apprehendi potest in re sensata, potest dici sensibile per accidens, sed quod statim ad occursum rei sensatae apprehenditur intellectu, sicut statim cum video aliquem loquentem vel movere seipsum apprehendo per intellectum vitam eius, unde possum dicere quod video eum vivere.
Therefore, what is not known by any proper sense is apprehended by the intellect, if it be a universal; still, not everything that can be apprehended by intellect in a sensed thing can be called a “sense-object accidentally,” but only what is intellectually apprehended immediately at the presence of the sensed reality. Thus, as soon as I see anyone talking or moving himself, I apprehend his life through my intellect, whence I can say that I see him live.
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Si vero apprehendatur in singulari, ut puta <si>, cum video coloratum, percipio hunc hominem vel hoc animal, huiusmodi quidem apprehensio in homine fit per vim cogitativam, quae dicitur etiam ratio particularis eo quod est collativa intentionum individualium sicut ratio universalis est collativa rationum universalium,
But if this is apprehended in an individual, as when, seeing a colored thing, I perceive this particular man or this beast, then in fact the apprehension arises in a man through the cogitative power, which is also called “particular reason,” because it collects the intentions of individuals, just as universal reason collects the accounts of universals.
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397. nihilominus tamen haec vis est in parte sensitiva, quia vis sensitiva in sui supremo participat aliquid de vi intellectiva in homine, in quo sensus intellectui coniungitur; in animali vero irrationali fit apprehensio intentionis individualis per aestimativam naturalem, secundum quod ovis per auditum vel visum cognoscit filium vel aliquid huiusmodi.
397. Nevertheless, this capacity is in the sensitive part of the soul, for the sensitive power at its highest—in man, in whom the sense power is joined to the intellectual—has a certain share in the intellectual power. But the irrational animals’ apprehension of individualized intentions occurs through a natural estimation, in virtue of which a sheep recognizes its offspring by sight, or hearing, or something of that sort.
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398. Differenter tamen circa hoc se habet cogitativa et aestimativa: nam cogitativa apprehendit individuum ut existens sub natura communi, quod contingit ei inquantum unitur intellectivae in eodem subiecto, unde cognoscit hunc hominem prout est hic homo et hoc lignum prout est hoc lignum; aestimativa autem non apprehendit aliquod individuum secundum quod est sub natura communi, sed solum secundum quod est terminus aut principium alicuius actionis vel passionis, sicut ovis cognoscit hunc agnum non inquantum est hic agnus, sed inquantum est ab ea lactabilis, et hanc herbam inquantum est eius cibus; unde illa individua ad quae se non extendit eius actio vel passio, nullo modo apprehendit sua aestimativa naturali: naturalis enim aestimativa datur animalibus ut per eam ordinentur in actiones proprias vel passiones prosequendas vel fugiendas.
398. Nonetheless the cogitative power and the estimative power are oriented in different ways relative to this. The cogitative apprehends the individual as existing under a common nature, and this is because it is united to intellect in one and the same subject. Hence it knows this man insofar as he is this man, and this tree as it is this tree; but the estimative power does not apprehend any individual insofar as it is under a common nature, but only insofar as it is the terminus or principle of some action or passion. For example, a sheep knows this lamb, not insofar as it is this lamb, but insofar as it is able to be suckled by it, and this grass insofar as it is its food. Hence, those individual things to which its action or passion does not extend it does not apprehend at all by its natural estimation. For natural estimation is given to animals so that they might be ordered in their own proper seeking and avoiding actions and passions.
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L. 14 (B.7, 418a26–418b26)The object of sight
Quod color sit proprium obiectum visus ac visibile per se. Quid item diaphanum ac lumen sit exponit, et lumen ipsum non esse corpus probat
The object of sight
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Cuius quidem est visus, hoc est visibile, visibile autem est color quidem et quod ratione quidem est dicere, innominatum autem existit ens, manifestum autem erit ingredientibus maxime.
That of which there is sight is the visible; and the visible is color and also something which, though it has no name, we can state descriptively. It will be evident what we mean when we have gone further into the matter.
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Visibile enim est color, hoc autem est in eo quod secundum se visibile; secundum se autem non ratione, sed quoniam in se ipso habet causam essendi visibile. Omnis enim color motivus est eius quod secundum actum dyafani, et hoc est ipsius natura. Unde quidem non visibile sine lumine, sed omnis cuiuslibet color in lumine visibile. Ex quo de lumine primo dicendum est.
For the visible is color, and it is this which is visible in itself, not, however, by its account, but because it has in itself the cause of being visible. For every color is able to move what is actually transparent: this is its very nature. Hence nothing is visible without light; but by light each and every color is visible. Wherefore, we must first say what light is.
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Est igitur aliquid dyafanum. Dyafanum autem dico quod est quidem visibile, non autem secundum se visibile ut simpliciter est dicere, sed propter extraneum colorem. Huiusmodi autem est aer et aqua et multa solidorum. Non enim secundum quod aqua neque secundum quod aer dyafanum est, sed quoniam est natura eadem in his utrisque et in perpetuo superius corpore.
There is, accordingly, something transparent. By “transparent” I mean that which is, indeed, visible, yet not of itself, as if to speak without qualification, but by virtue of concomitant color. Air and water and many solids are such. But transparency does not belong to either air or water as such, but because there is the same nature in each of them, and in eternal body above as well.
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Lumen autem est huius actus dyafani secundum quod est dyafanum. Potentia autem in quo hoc est et tenebra. Lumen autem ut color est dyafani secundum quod actu dyafanum ab igne aut huiusmodi, ut quod sursum corpus; et enim huic aliquid inest unum et idem.
Light is the act of this transparent thing as transparent; but it is potentially in what is also darkness. Now, light is like the color of the transparent, insofar as it is actually transparent due to fire or some such thing, as in the upper body, which contains indeed something of one; for one and the same thing is present in this.
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Quid quidem igitur dyafanum et quid lumen, dictum est, quia neque ignis est neque omnino corpus neque defluxus corporis nullius: esset enim utique aliquod corpus, et sic ignis aut huiusmodi alicuius presentia in dyafano.
We have, then, indicated what the transparent is and what light is; for light is not fire or any bodily thing, nor any emanation from a body—for then it would be a sort of body, and so be fire or the presence of something similar in the transparent.
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Neque enim possibile est duo corpora simul in eodem esse.
But it is impossible for two bodies to exist in the same place at the same time.
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Videtur autem lumen contrarium esse tenebre. Est autem tenebra privatio huiusmodi habitus ex dyafano. Quare palam quod et huius presentia lumen est.
Light seems to be the contrary of darkness; and darkness is the privation of this sort of thing had by the transparent. So it is also plain that the presence of this is light.
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Et non recte Empedocles, neque si aliquis alius sic dixit quod feratur lumen et extendatur medio terre et continentis, nos autem lateat; hoc enim est et extra eam quae in ratione veritatem et extra ea quae videntur: in parvo enim spatio lateret nos, ab oriente autem in occidens latere, magna quidem multum quaestio est.
Empedocles (or anyone else who may have said the same) did not speak correctly when he said that light is borne along and extended between the earth and its container, but does so unperceived by us. For this deviates both from sound reasoning and from how things appear. For such a thing might escape our observation over a small space, but that it should remain unnoticed running from the east to the west asks quite a great deal.
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399. Cuius quidem <est> visus etc. Postquam philosophus distinxit propria sensibilia a sensibilibus communibus et sensibilibus secundum accidens, hic determinat de propriis sensibilibus secundum unumquemque sensum.
399. That of which there is sight (418a26). Having distinguished the proper sense-objects from the common and from those that are sensible accidentally, the Philosopher now treats of the proper object of each sense:
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Et primo de proprio sensibili visus;
first, of the proper object of sight;
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secundo de proprio sensibili auditus, ibi: nunc autem primum de sono etc.;
second, at now let us start (419b4; [439]), of the proper object of hearing;
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tertio de proprio sensibili olfactus, ibi: de odore autem etc.;
third, at it is not so easy (421a7; [479]), of the proper object of smell;
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quarto de proprio sensibili gustus, ibi: gustabile autem est etc.;
fourth, at the tasteable (422a8; [501]), of the proper object of taste;
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quinto de proprio sensibili tactus, ibi: de tangibili autem et tactu etc.
and fifth, at the same reasoning holds (422b17; [517]), of the proper object of touch.
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Circa primum duo facit:
As to the first, he discusses two things:
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primo determinat de visibili;
first, he determines about the visible;
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secundo ostendit quomodo visibile videatur, ibi: nunc autem in tantum manifestum etc.
second, at at present what is clear (419a7; [431]), how the visible comes to be seen.
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Circa primum duo facit:
Regarding the first, he does two things.
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primo manifestat quid est visibile, distinguens visibile in duo;
First, he determines what the visible is, dividing it into two.
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secundo determinat de utroque visibili, ibi: visibile enim est color etc.
Second, he deals with both visibles, at for the visible is color (418a29; [400]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, cum dictum sit quod propria sensibilia sunt quae unusquisque sensus proprie percipit, illud sensibile cuius proprie perceptivus est visus, hoc est visibile; sub visibili autem comprehenduntur duo: nam visibile et est color, et est quoddam aliud quod ratione quidem designari potest, sed non habet nomen proprium sibi impositum, quod quidem visibile competit his quae videntur de nocte, sicut sunt noctilucae et putredines quercuum et huiusmodi, de quibus erit manifestum in processu huius tractatus, postquam ingressi fuerimus in cognitionem visibilis ex cognitione coloris, quod est manifestius visibile.
Thus, first he says that since the proper sense-object is that which each sense properly perceives, the sense-object of which sight is properly receptive is the visible.1 Now, under the “visible,” two things are included; for both the visible is color and also something else that can be designated descriptively, but has no proper name given it. This visible belongs to things that can be seen at night, such as glow-worms and certain fungi on oak-trees and the like, concerning which things will be evident as the treatise progresses, after we gain a deeper understanding of the visible from the knowledge of color, which is more manifestly visible.2
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400. Deinde cum dicit: visibile enim est color etc., determinat de utroque visibili.
400. Then, at for the visible (418a29), he begins to define both objects of sight:
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Et primo de colore;
first, color;
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secundo de eo quod dixit esse innominatum, ibi: non autem omnia visibilia etc.
and then, at not all visible things (419a1; [429]), that of which he says that it has no proper name.
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Circa primum duo facit:
About the first, he does two things:
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primo ostendit quomodo color se habet ad hoc quod sit visibilis;
first, he shows what color has to do with visibility;
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secundo determinat de his quae requiruntur ad hoc quod color videatur, ibi: est igitur aliquid diaphanum etc.
second, at there is, accordingly, something transparent, he determines what is required for color to be seen.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, cum color sit quoddam visibile, esse visibile convenit ei secundum se: nam color in eo quod est color est visibilis.
First of all, then, he says that, since color is something visible, to be visible belongs to it in itself, for color inasmuch as it is color is visible.
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401. Per se autem dupliciter dicitur.
401. But “in itself” or per se is said in two ways.1
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Uno enim modo dicitur propositio per se cuius praedicatum cadit in definitione subiecti, sicut ista: homo est animal; animal enim cadit in definitione hominis; et quia id quod est in definitione alicuius est aliquo modo causa eius, in his quae sic per se dicuntur, praedicatum est causa subiecti.
In one way, a proposition is per se when the predicate falls within the definition of the subject, for example, man is an animal; for animal enters into the definition of man. And since that which is within the definition of anything is in some way the cause of it, in things that are called per se in this way, the predicate is the cause of the subject.
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Alio modo dicitur propositio per se, cuius e contrario subiectum ponitur in definitione praedicati, sicut si dicatur: nasus est simus, vel: numerus est par; simum enim nihil aliud est quam nasus curvus, et par nihil aliud est quam numerus medietatem habens; et in istis subiectum est causa praedicati.
In another way, a proposition is per se in a contrary way, when the subject is placed in the definition of the predicate, as when it is said that nose is snub, or number is even; for the snub is nothing but the curved nose, and the even nothing but the number that has a middle; and in these cases the subject is a cause of the predicate.
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402. Intelligendum est ergo quod color est visibilis per se hoc modo secundo et non primo: nam visibilitas est quaedam passio coloris sicut simum est passio nasi. Et hoc est quod dicit quod color est secundum se visibile non ratione, id est non ita quod visibile ponatur in eius definitione, sed quia in seipso habet causam ut sit visibile, sicut subiectum in seipso habet causam propriae passionis.
402. Therefore, one should understand that color is visible in itself in this second manner, not in the first; for visibility is a certain passion of color, just as being snub is a passion of a nose. And this is why he says that color is visible in itself but not by its account, that is to say, not such that visibility is placed in its definition, but because it has in itself the cause that it should be visible, as a subject possesses in itself the cause of its own proper passion.
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403. Quod probat per hoc quod omnis color est motivus diaphani secundum actum; diaphanum autem idem est quod transparens, ut aer vel aqua, et hoc habet color de sui natura quod possit movere diaphanum in actu; [et] hoc autem quod movet diaphanum in actu est visibile; unde sequitur quod color secundum suam naturam est visibile. Et quia diaphanum non fit in actu nisi per lumen, sequitur quod color non sit visibilis sine lumine. Et ideo, antequam ostendatur qualiter color videatur, dicendum est de lumine.
403. Which he proves by this, that every color is able to move what is transparent actually. Now, the diaphanous is the same thing as the transparent (for example, air or water), and color has it in its own nature that it can move what is transparent in act. And that which moves the actually transparent is visible; whence it follows that color is visible according to its own nature. And since the transparent is brought to act only through light, it follows that color is not visible without light. And therefore, before explaining how color is seen, we must say what light is.
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404. Deinde cum dicit: est igitur aliquid dyaphynum, determinat de his sine quibus color videri non potest, scilicet diaphano et lumine. Et dividitur in partes tres:
404. Then, at there is, accordingly (418b4), he discusses those things without which color cannot be seen, namely, the transparent and light; and this is divided into three sections.
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primo ostendit quid sit diaphanum;
First, he explains the transparent.
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secundo determinat de lumine, quod est actus eius, ibi: lumen autem est huius actus etc;
Second, at light is (418b9; [405]), he treats of the transparent’s actuality, that is, light.
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tertio ostendit quomodo diaphanum est susceptivum coloris, ibi: est autem coloris etc.
Third, he shows how the transparent is receptive of color, at now, that only can receive color (418b26; [427]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, cum color sit motivus secundum suam naturam diaphani, necesse est quod diaphanum sit aliquid. Est autem diaphanum quod non habet proprium colorem ut secundum ipsum videri possit, sed est susceptivum extranei coloris secundum quem aliquo modo est visibile. Huiusmodi autem diaphanum est sicut aer et aqua et multa corpora solida, ut lapides quidam et vitrum. Licet autem alia accidentia quae conveniunt elementis et elementatis, conveniant eis secundum naturam elementorum, sicut calidum et frigidum, grave et leve, et alia huiusmodi, tamen diaphanum non convenit praedictis ex natura aeris aut aquae secundum quod huiusmodi, sed consequitur quamdam naturam communem non solum aeri et aquae, quae sunt corpora corruptibilia, sed etiam caelesti corpori, quod est perpetuum et incorruptibile. Manifestum est enim aliqua caelestia corpora esse diaphana: non enim possemus videre stellas fixas, quae sunt in octava sphaera, nisi inferiores sphaerae planetarum essent transparentes vel diaphanae. Sic manifestum est quod diaphanum non est proprietas consequens naturam aeris aut aquae, sed aliquam communiorem naturam ex cuius proprietate oportet causam diaphanitatis assignare, ut postea apparebit.
To begin with, therefore, he says that if color is that which of its own nature moves the transparent, the transparent must be something. Now, the transparent is what does not have its own proper color, such that it could be seen in virtue of it, but it is receptive of color from without, in virtue of which it is, in a way, visible. Examples of such are air and water and many solid bodies, such as certain jewels and glass. Now, whereas other accidents, which belong to the elements or to bodies constituted from them, belong to them on account of the nature of those elements (such as heat and cold, weight and lightness, etc.), transparency does not belong to them due to the nature of air or water as such; rather, it is consequent upon some nature common not only to air and water, which are corruptible bodies, but also to the celestial body, which is perpetual and incorruptible. For at least some of the celestial bodies are manifestly transparent. For we should not be able to see the fixed stars of the eighth sphere unless the lower spheres of the planets were transparent or diaphanous. Hence it is evident that to be transparent is not a property consequent on the nature of air or of water, but of some more common nature, in which the cause of transparency is to be found, as we shall see later.
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405. Deinde cum dicit: lumen autem <est> huius actus etc., ostendit quid sit lumen.
405. Next, at light is the act (418b9), he shows what light is:
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Et primo manifestat veritatem;
first, stating the truth;
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secundo excludit errorem, ibi: quod quidem igitur etc.
and then dismissing an error, at we have, then (418b13; [406].
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Dicit ergo primo quod lumen est actus diaphani secundum quod est diaphanum. Manifestatum est quod neque aer neque aqua neque aliquid huiusmodi est actu transparens nisi fuerit illuminatum; ipsum autem diaphanum secundum se est in potentia et respectu luminis et respectu tenebrae, quae est privatio luminis, sicut materia prima est ut potentia respectu formae et privationis; lumen autem hoc modo comparatur ad diaphanum sicut color ad corpus terminatum, quia utrumque est actus et forma sui susceptivi. Et propter hoc dicit quod lumen est quasi quidam color diaphani secundum quod diaphanum est actu factum diaphanum ab aliquo corpore lucente, sive illud sit ignis aut aliquid aliud huiusmodi, sive aliquod corpus caeleste: esse enim lucens actu et illuminativum commune est igni et corpori caelesti, sicut esse diaphanum commune est aeri et aquae et corpori caelesti.
He says, to begin with, that light is the act of this transparent thing as transparent. For it is evident that neither air nor water nor anything of that sort is actually transparent unless it is illuminated. Of itself, the transparent is in potency to both light and darkness (the latter being a privation of light), as primary matter is in potency both to form and privation. Now, light is to the transparent as color is to a body of definite dimensions, since each is the act and form of that which receives it. And on this account, he says that light is, as it were, a certain color of the transparent, insofar as the transparent is made actually so by some luminous body, such as fire, or some such thing, or by a celestial body. For to be actually luminous and able to illuminate is common to fire and to a certain celestial body, just as to be transparent is common to air and water and the celestial body.
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406. Deinde cum dicit: quid quidem igitur etc., excludit falsam opinionem de lumine. Et circa hoc duo facit:
406. Then, at we have, then, indicated (418b13), he rejects a false opinion on light; and about this he does two things.
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primo ostendit quod lumen non est corpus;
First, he shows that light is not a body;
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secundo improbat quamdam solutionem ad rationem quamdam per quam potest probari lumen non esse corpus, ibi: et non recte Empedocles etc.
second, he refutes an objection brought against the arguments which prove that light is not a body, at Empedocles was wrong (418b20; [409]).
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Circa primum tria facit.
As to the first point, he does three things.
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Primo proponit intentum. Et dicit quod, cum dictum sit quid est diaphanum et quid lumen, ex hoc manifestum est quod lumen neque est ignis, ut quidam dicebant ponentes tres species ignis, carbonem, flammam et lumen, neque est aliquod corpus omnino, neque aliquid defluens ab aliquo corpore, sicut posuit Democritus lumen esse quasdam decisiones defluentes a corporis lucidis, scilicet atomos quosdam: si enim essent aliqua defluentia a corpore, sequeretur quod essent aliquod corpus, et sic nihil aliud esset lumen quam praesentia ignis aut alicuius huiusmodi corporis in diaphano; nihil ergo differt dicere quod lumen est corpus et quod est defluxus corporis.
First, he states his own view, saying that, once it is clear what the transparent is, and what light is, it is evident that light is not fire (as some have said, positing three kinds of fire: the combustible, flame, and light); or any bodily thing; nor anything flowing from a body, as Democritus supposed, asserting that light consisted of atomic particles emanating from luminous bodies. For if there were these emanations from bodies, they would themselves be bodies, or a sort of body, and so be nothing other than fire, or something similar in the transparent, present in the transparent, which is the same as to say that light is a body and an emanation from a body.
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407. Secundo ibi: neque enim possibile etc., probat quod proposuerat, tali ratione. Impossibile est duo corpora esse simul; si ergo lumen est corpus, impossibile est quod lumen sit simul cum corpore diaphano; hoc autem est falsum; ergo lumen non est corpus.
407. Second, at but it is impossible (418b17), he proves his own hypothesis thus. It is impossible for two bodies to exist in the same place at the same time. If therefore light were a body, it could not co-exist with a transparent body; but this is false; therefore light is not a body.
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408. Tertio ibi: videtur autem lumen etc., probat quod lumen sit simul cum diaphano. Contrariorum enim est idem subiectum; lumen autem et tenebra sunt contraria secundum modum quo privatio et habitus est quaedam contrarietas, ut dicitur in X Metaphysicae; manifestum est autem quod tenebra est quaedam privatio huiusmodi habitus, scilicet luminis, ex diaphano; et sic subiectum tenebrae est diaphanum; ergo et praesentia dicti habitus, scilicet lucis, est lumen; ergo est simul cum diaphano.
408. Third, at light seems (418b18), he shows that light does co-exist with the transparent body. For contraries belong to the same subject. But light and darkness are contraries in the manner in which a possession and its privation are contraries, as is stated in Metaphysics 10.1 Obviously, darkness is the privation of this sort of thing had, that is, of light, by the transparent—and in this way the transparent is the subject of darkness. Hence, too, the presence of this possession mentioned (that is, of the luminous) is light. Therefore it co-exists with the transparent.
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409. Deinde cum dicit: et non recte Empedocles etc., reprobat quamdam responsionem ad rationem quamdam quae potest fieri contra ponentes lumen esse corpus. Potest enim contra eos sic argui: si lumen est corpus, oportet quod illuminatio sit motus localis luminis adevenientis in diaphanum; nullus autem motus localis cuiuscumque corporis potest esse subitus sive in instanti; ergo illuminatio non est subito, sed successive,
409. Then, at Empedocles was wrong (418b20), he refutes an answer to one argument which might be urged against those who hold that light is a body. For it is possible to argue thus against them: if light were a body, illumination ought to be a local motion of light passing through the transparent, but no local movement of any body can be sudden or instantaneous; therefore, illumination would be not instantaneous but successive, according to this view.
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410. cuius contrarium videmus, quia in eodem instanti in quo corpus lucidum praesentatur, illuminatur diaphanum totum simul et non pars eius post partem.
410. Of which the contrary is a fact of experience; for in the very instant in which a luminous body becomes present, the transparent body is illuminated all at once, not part after part.
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Non recte autem Empedocles neque quicumque alius dixit quod scilicet lumen feratur motu locali tamquam corpus et extendatur successive in spatio quod est medium inter terram et continens, scilicet caelum, et quod ista successio nos lateat, sed videatur nobis quod totum illuminetur simul et subito;
So Empedocles did not speak correctly, nor did anyone else, in saying that light was borne along by local motion, as a body is; and that it is extended successively through the space that is the medium between the earth and its container, that is, the heavens; and that this successive motion is unperceived by us, so that the whole thing seems to us to be illuminated simultaneously and suddenly.
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411. hoc enim dictum est contra veritatem quae potest ratione percipi, quia ad illuminationem diaphani nihil requiritur nisi directa oppositio, absque obstaculo medio, corporis illuminantis ad illuminabile;
411. For this statement is contrary to the truth that can be perceived in sound reasoning, for nothing is required for the illumination of the transparent other than the placing of a luminous body over against the one to be illumined, with no intervening obstacle.
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412. item est contra id quod apparet: posset enim dici quod successio motus localis in parvo spatio lateat nos, sed quod lateat nos successio in motu luminis ab oriente usque ad occidentem horizontis nostri, hoc habet magnam quaestionem, tamquam difficile aut omnino impossibile.
412. Again, it contradicts appearances. For one might allow that successive local motion over a small space might escape our observation, but that a successive movement of light from the east all the way to the western horizon should escape our notice is an enormous request, one both difficult or even quite impossible.
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413. Quia vero hic agitur de natura luminis, et dyaphani, et necessitate luminis ad videndum, de his tribus considerandum est.
413. But as the subject matter under discussion is threefold, that is, of the nature of light, and of the transparent, and of the necessity of light for seeing, we must take these three questions one by one.
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Circa naturam igitur luminis diversi diversimode opinati sunt. Quidam enim opinati sunt lumen esse corpus, ut in littera dicitur; ad quod dicendum moti sunt ex quibusdam locutionibus quibus utimur loquentes de lumine: consuevimus enim dicere quod radius transit per aerem, quod reverberatur, quod radii se intersecant, quae omnia videntur esse corporum.
On the nature of light various opinions have been held. Some, as we have seen, held that light was a body (as is said in the text); they were led to this by certain expressions used in speaking of light. For instance, we are accustomed to say that a ray “passes through” the air, that it is “thrown back,” that rays “intersect,” and so forth; which all seem to imply something bodily.
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414. Quae quidem opinio stare non potest propter rationes quas Aristoteles in littera adducit, et plures alias facile esset adducere. Non enim facile esset assignare quomodo huiusmodi corpus per totum hemisphaerium subito multiplicaretur aut generaretur vel corrumperetur, quomodo etiam sola oppositio corporis opaci esset causa corruptionis huius corporis in parte diaphani aliqua. Quod autem dicitur de motu luminis aut reverberatione ipsius, metaphorice dictum est, sicut etiam possemus dicere quod calor procedit dum aliqua de novo calefiunt, vel reverberantur cum habet obstaculum.
414. But this opinion cannot stand, as the arguments here adduced by Aristotle show, to which others might easily be added. For it is hard to see how such a body could be suddenly multiplied over the whole hemisphere, or come into existence or vanish; nor how the mere intervention of an opaque body should cause the corruption of this body in some part of the transparent. To speak of the motion or rebounding of light is to use metaphors, as when we speak of heat “proceeding into” things that are being heated or being “thrown back” when it meets an obstacle.
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415. Quidam vero alii dixerunt quod lux est quaedam natura spiritualis, argumentum sumentes quod in rebus intellectualibus nomine luminis utimur: dicimus enim in substantiis intellectualibus esse quoddam lumen intelligibile. Sed hoc etiam est impossibile:
415. Then there are those who maintain, on the contrary, that light is a certain spiritual nature. Otherwise, they say, why do we use the term “light” in speaking of intellectual realities? For we say that in the intellectual substances there is a certain intelligible light. But this also is inadmissible.
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416. impossibile est enim quod aliqua natura spiritualis et intelligibilis cadat in apprehensione sensus qui, cum sit virtus corporea, non potest esse cognoscitivus nisi rerum corporalium. Si quis autem dicat quod aliud est lumen spirituale ab eo quod sensus percipit, non erit cum eo contendendum, dummodo hoc habeatur quod lumen quod visus percipit non est natura spiritualis: nihil enim prohibet unum nomen imponi rebus quantumcumque diversis.
416. For it is impossible that any spiritual or intellectual nature should fall within the apprehension of the senses, whose power, being bodily, cannot acquire knowledge of any but bodily things. But if anyone should say that there is a spiritual light other than the light that the senses perceive, we need not quarrel with him, so long as he admits that the light that vision perceives is not the spiritual nature. For there is no reason why one name can be imposed on very different realities.
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417. Quod autem lumine et his quae ad visum pertinent utamur in rebus intellectualibus, contingit ex nobilitate sensus visus, qui est spiritualior et subtilior inter omnes sensus. Quod patet ex duobus.
417. The reason, in fact, why we employ “light” and other words referring to vision in matters concerning the intellect comes from the nobility of the sense of sight; it is more spiritual and more subtle than any other sense. This is evident in two ways.
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Primo quidem ex suo obiecto: nam aliqua cadunt sub visu secundum proprietates in quibus communicant inferiora corpora cum caelestibus; tactus autem est perceptivus proprietatum quae sunt propriae elementis, scilicet calidi et frigidi et similium; gustus autem et olfactus proprietatum quae competunt corporibus mixtis secundum diversam rationem commixtionis calidi et frigidi humidi et sicci; sonus autem causatur ex motu locali, qui etiam communis est corporibus caelestibus et inferioribus, licet species motus quae causat sonum non competat corporibus caelestibus secundum sententiam Aristotelis; unde ex ipsa natura obiecti apparet quod visus est altior inter sensus et auditus ei propinquior et alii sensus magis remoti.
First, from the object of sight. For things fall under sight in virtue of properties that lower bodies have in common with the heavenly bodies. On the other hand, touch is perceptive of properties that are proper to the elements (such as heat and cold and the like); and taste and smell perceive properties that pertain to compound bodies, according to how these are variously compounded of the hot and the cold, the moist and the dry; sound, again, is caused by local movement, which is also common to lower and the heavenly bodies, although the species of motion that causes sound does not befit the heavenly bodies, according to the opinion of Aristotle.1 Hence, from the very nature of the object, it is apparent that sight is the highest of the senses, with hearing nearest to it, and the others still more remote from its dignity.
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418. Secundo apparet quod sensus visus est spiritualior ex modo immutationis: nam in quolibet alio sensu non est immutatio spiritualis sine naturali (dico autem immutationem naturalem prout qualitas recipitur in patiente secundum esse naturae, sicut cum aliquid infrigidatur vel calefit aut movetur secundum locum;
418. The spirituality of the sense of sight is apparent in a second way from the manner of its modification. For in every other sense, there is no spiritual modification without a natural one. I speak of a “natural modification” when a quality is received in what is being acted upon according to an existence of nature, as when something is cooled, or heated, or moved about in space.
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immutatio vero spiritualis est secundum quod species recipitur in organo sensus aut in medio per modum intentionis et non per modum naturalis formae: non enim sic recipitur species in sensu secundum illud esse quod habet in re sensibili); patet autem quod in tactu et gustu, qui est tactus quidam, fit alteratio naturalis: calefit enim et infrigidatur aliquid per contactum calidi et frigidi et non fit immutatio spiritualis tantum;
But by a “spiritual modification,” I mean what happens when the species is received in the sense organ, or in the medium, through the mode of an intention and not through the mode of a natural form. For the species is not being received in the sense according to that existence that it had in the sensible reality. Now, in the case of touching and tasting (which is a kind of touching), it is clear that a natural alteration occurs: for the organ itself grows hot or cold by contact with a hot or cold object; there is not only a spiritual modification.
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similiter autem immutatio odoris fit cum quadam fumali evaporatione, immutatio autem soni cum motu locali; sed in immutatione visus est sola immutatio spiritualis; unde patet quod visus inter omnes sensus est spiritualior, et post hunc auditus. Et propter hoc hi duo sensus sunt maxime spirituales et soli disciplinales, et his quae ad eos pertinent utimur in intellectualibus et praecipue his quae pertinent ad visum.
So, too, the modification of smell involves a sort of vaporous exhalation; and that of sound involves local movement. But seeing involves only a spiritual modification—hence it is clear that sight is more spiritual than the other senses, and after it, hearing. These two senses are, therefore, the most spiritual and are the only ones pertaining to learning. Hence the use we make of what refers to them—and especially of what refers to sight—in speaking of intellectual objects.
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419. Quidam vero dixerunt quod lumen non est nisi evidentia coloris. Sed hoc aperte apparet esse falsum in his quae lucent de nocte et tamen eorum color occultatur.
419. Then again, some have simply identified light with the manifestation of color. But this is patently untrue in the case of things that shine by night while their color, nevertheless, remains obscure.
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420. Alii vero dixerunt quod lux est forma substantialis solis, et lumen defluens a luce habet esse intentionale, sicut species colorum in aere.
420. Others, on the other hand, have said that luminosity is the substantial form of the sun, and that the light proceeding from the light-source has an intentional existence, as does the species of colors in the air.
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Utrumque autem horum est falsum: primum quidem, quia nulla forma substantialis est per se sensibilis, sed solo intellectu comprehensibilis (et si dicatur quod id quod videtur in sole non est lux sed splendor, non erit contendendum de nomine, dummodo hoc quod dicimus lucem, scilicet quod visu apprehenditur, non sit forma substantialis);
But both these propositions are false. The former, because no substantial form is sensible through itself but is graspable only by intellect. And if it is said that what the sense sees in the sun is not luminosity but its splendor, we need not dispute about names, provided only it be granted that what we call “luminous,” that is, what is apprehended by sight, is not a substantial form.
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secundum etiam falsum est, quia quae habent solum esse intentionale non faciunt transmutationem naturalem, radii autem corporum caelestium transmutant totam naturam inferiorem.
And the latter proposition too is false, because whatever has only intentional existence does not cause natural change, whereas the rays from the heavenly bodies do in fact change all lower nature.
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Unde dicimus quod, sicut corpora elementaria habent qualitates activas per quas agunt, ita lux est qualitas activa corporis caelestis per quam agit, et est in tertia specie qualitatis sicut et calor.
Hence, our own conclusion is that, just as the bodily elements have certain active qualities through which they act, so too, luminosity is the active quality of the heavenly body through which it acts, and this is in the third species of quality, like heat.
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421. Sed in hoc differt a calore quia lux est qualitas primi corporis alterantis, quod non habet contrarium, unde nec lux contrarium habet, calori autem est aliquid contrarium; et quia luci nihil est contrarium, in suo susceptibili non potest habere contrariam dispositionem et propter hoc suum passivum, scilicet diaphanum, semper est in ultima dispositione ad formam et propter hoc statim illuminatur; non autem calefactibile statim calefit. Ipsa igitur participatio vel effectus lucis in diaphano vocatur lumen, et si fit secundum rectam lineam ad corpus lucidum, vocatur radius, si autem causetur ex reverberatione radii ad corpus lucens, vocatur splendor; lumen autem commune est ad omnem effectum lucis in diaphano.
421. But it differs from heat in this: that luminosity is a quality of the primary change-effecting body, which has no contrary: therefore luminosity has no contrary, whereas there is a contrary to heat. And because there is no contrary to luminosity, there is no place for a contrary disposition in its recipient, and therefore what is passive to it, that is, the transparent, is always in the final disposition to its form. That is why illumination occurs instantaneously, whereas what can become hot does not do this. Now, the very participation or effect of the luminous within the transparent is called “light,” and if it comes about in a straight line to the luminous body, it is called a “ray,” whereas if it is caused by the reflection of a ray in relation to a luminous body, it is called “splendor.” But “light” is commonly used for every effect of the luminous within the transparent.
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422. His igitur visis circa naturam luminis, de facili apparet ratio quare quaedam corpora sunt lucida actu, quaedam diaphana, quaedam opaca: nam cum lux sit qualitas primi alterantis, quod est maxime perfectum et formale in corporibus, illa corpora quae sunt maxime formalia et nobilia sunt lucida actu; quae autem propinqua his sunt receptiva luminis, sicut diaphana; quae autem sunt maxime materialia, neque habent lumen in sui natura neque sunt luminis receptiva, sed sunt opaca. Quod patet in ipsis elementis: nam ignis habet lucem in sui natura, licet eius lux non appareat nobis nisi in natura aliena propter densitatem; aer autem et aqua, quae sunt minus formalia, sunt diaphana; terra autem, quae est maxime materialis, est opaca.
422. So much being admitted as to the nature of light, we can easily understand the reason why certain bodies are actually luminous, while others are transparent, and others opaque. For because luminosity is a quality of the primary change-effecting body, which is the most perfect and formal of bodies, those bodies that are most formal and noble are actually luminous; and close to these are the ones receptive of light, the transparent; but those that are most material have neither light in their own nature nor are they receptive of light, but they are opaque. One may see this in the elements themselves: for fire has luminosity in its own nature, though its luminosity is not apparent to us except in a foreign nature, on account of its density there; whereas air and water, being less formal, are transparent; while earth, the most material of all, is opaque.
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423. Circa tertium vero sciendum est quod quidam dixerunt quod lumen necessarium est ad videndum ex parte ipsius coloris: dicunt enim quod color non habet virtutem ut moveat diaphanum nisi per lumen,
423. With regard to the third point, note that some have said that light is necessary for seeing even on the side of the color itself; for they say that color has no power to move the transparent medium except through light.
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et huius signum dant quod ille qui est in obscuro videt ea quae sunt in lumine, sed non e converso; rationem etiam ad hoc adducunt, quia oportet quod, cum visus sit unus, quod visibile non sit nisi per rationem unam, quod non esset si color esset per se visibilis, non per virtutem luminis, et iterum lumen esset per se visibile.
An indication of this is, they say, that one who stands in the shadow can see what is in the light, but one who stands in the light cannot see what is in shadow. The reason for this, they said, is that, as seeing is one thing, a thing is visible only through one account; and that would not be so if color were visible through itself—not by the power of light—and light also were visible through itself.
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424. Sed hoc est manifeste contra id quod Aristoteles hic dicit quod habet in se causam essendi visibile. Unde secundum sententiam Aristotelis dicendum est quod lumen necessarium est ad videndum non ex parte coloris, eo quod faciat colores esse actu, quos quidam dicunt tantum esse in potentia cum sunt in tenebris, sed ex parte diaphani, inquantum facit ipsum esse in actu, ut in littera dicitur.
424. Now, this view is clearly contrary to what Aristotle says here: and has in itself the cause of being visible (418a29). Hence, following his opinion, I say that light is necessary for seeing, not on the side of color, in that it actualizes colors (which some say are only in potency so long as they are in darkness), but on the side of the transparent, inasmuch as light makes it be actual, as the text states.
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425. Et ad huius evidentiam considerandum est quod omnis forma inquantum huiusmodi est principium agendi sibi simile; unde, cum color sit quaedam forma, ex se habet quod causet sui similitudinem in medio. Sed tamen sciendum est quod differentia est inter virtutem perfectam et imperfectam: nam forma quae est perfectae virtutis in agendo non solum potest inducere suam similitudinem in susceptibili, sed potest etiam disponere patiens ut sit proprium eius susceptivum; quod quidem non potest facere cum fuerit imperfectae virtutis.
425. And in proof of this, note that every form is, as such, a principle of effecting a likeness with itself; whence, since color is a form, it has of itself the power to cause its likeness within the medium. But note also that there is this difference between a complete power and an incomplete power: the form that has perfect power in agency can not only induce its likeness within what is receptive to it, but can even dispose what it acts upon so that it becomes its proper recipient. This is beyond the power of the incomplete power.
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Dicendum est igitur quod virtus coloris in agendo est imperfecta respectu virtutis luminis: nam color nihil aliud est quam lux quaedam quodam modo obscurata ex admixtione corporis opaci, unde non habet virtutem ut faciat medium in illa dispositione qua fit susceptivum coloris; quod tamen potest facere lux pura.
One should say, then, that the power of color in its agency is imperfect relative to the power of light; for color is nothing other than a certain luminosity that is somehow dimmed by the admixture of the opaque body. Hence it lacks the power to render the medium disposed so that it might receive color; but pure luminosity can do this.
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426. Ex quo etiam patet quod, cum lux sit quodam modo substantia coloris, ad eamdem naturam reducitur omne visibile, nec oportet quod color per lumen extrinsecum fiat actu visibile. Quod autem colores illuminati videntur ab eo qui est in obscuro, contingit ex eo hoc quod etiam medium illuminatur in quantum sufficit ad immutationem visus.
426. Whence it is also clear that, as luminosity is, in a certain way, the substance of color, all visible objects are traced back to the same nature; nor does color need to be made visible by some other extrinsic light. However, that illuminated colors are seen by one standing in the shade is due to even the medium’s having been sufficiently illuminated for the modification of sight.
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L. 15 (B.7, 418b26–419b3)How color is seen
Proprium visibile in lumine et perspicuo videri et in debita distantia, quamvis et alia nonnulla in tenebris videantur, ostendit
How color is seen
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Est autem coloris susceptivum quod sine colore; soni autem absonum, sine colore autem dyafanum. Et invisibile aut quod vix videtur, ut videtur quod tenebrosum est. Huiusmodi autem dyafanum quidem est, sed non cum sit actu dyafanum, sed cum potentia; eadem enim natura quandoque quidem tenebra, quandoque autem lumen est.
Now, that only can receive color which itself is colorless, as only that which is soundless can receive sound. What is without color is the transparent and the invisible, or what is barely seen, being dark. The transparent is of this nature when it is not in act but in potency. For the same nature is sometimes dark, sometimes light.
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Non autem omnia visibilia sunt in lumine, sed solum uniuscuiusque proprius color: quaedam enim in lumine quidem non videntur, in tenebra autem faciunt sensum, ut quae ignea videntur et lucentia; non autem nominata sunt haec uno nomine, ut quercus putredines, cornu, capita piscium et squame et oculi; sed nullius horum videtur proprius color. Propter quam autem causam haec videntur, alia ratio.
Not all visible things, however, are visible in light, but only the color proper to each. There are certain things that are, indeed, not seen in light, but which produce a sensation in darkness, such as those which burn and are luminous. These are not called by any one term. Such are the fungi of certain trees, horn, fish-heads, scales, and eyes. But the color proper to each of these is not seen. Why these things are thus seen is a matter for another inquiry.
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Nunc autem in tantum manifestum est, quoniam quod quidem in lumine videtur, color; unde non videtur sine lumine, hoc enim erat ipsi colori esse, motivum esse secundum actum dyafani, actus autem dyafani lumen est. Signum autem huius manifestum: si quis enim ponat habens colorem super ipsum visum, non videbitur; sed color movet dyafanum, puta aerem, ab hoc autem iam continuo existente movetur sensitivum.
At present what is clear is that what is seen in light is color; therefore it is not seen without light. For to be color is to be able to move the transparent in act; and this act of the transparent is light. A manifest sign of this is that if one places on the sight itself a colored object, it is not seen. But color moves the transparent medium (say, air); and the sensitive organ is moved by this extended continuum.
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Non enim bene hoc dicit Democritus, opinatus, si esset vacuum quod medium, prospici utique certe, et si formica in caelo esset. Hoc enim impossibile est. Patiente enim aliquid sensitivo fit ipsum videre; ab ipso igitur qui videtur colore impossibile est; relinquitur autem quod a medio, quare necesse est aliquod esse medium. Vacuo autem facto, non aliquid certe, sed omnino nihil videbitur. Propter quam quidem igitur causam colorem necesse est in lumine videri, dictum est.
For Democritus did not speak well when he put forward the opinion that if the medium were a vacuum, perception would be everywhere exact, even if an ant were in the sky. This is, however, impossible; for only when the sensitive power is affected does vision occur. This cannot, however, be brought about by the color itself, which is seen. It must, therefore, be due to the medium, so there must be a medium. If there were a vacuum, a thing, so far from being perceived exactly, would not be seen at all. We have stated, then, why it is necessary that color be seen in light.
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Ignis autem in utrisque videtur, et in tenebra et in lumine, et hoc ex necessitate: dyafanum enim ab hoc lucidum fit.
But fire is seen in both darkness and light: necessarily so, for the transparent is made luminous by it.
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Eadem autem ratio est de sono et de odore: nihil enim ipsorum tangens sensitivum, facit sensum, sed ab odore quidem et sono media moventur, ab hoc autem sensitivorum utrumque; cum autem super ipsum sensitivum aliquis apponit odorans aut sonans, neque unum sensum faciet. De tactu autem et gustu habet se similiter, non autem videtur; propter quam autem causam, posterius erit manifestum.
The same account holds for both sound and smell. For no sensation is produced when either of these touches the sensitive organ, but a medium is moved by the sound and smell, and the sense organ of one or the other sense by the medium. But if one places an object that sounds or smells upon the sense organ itself, no sensation occurs. The same holds good of touch and taste, although this is not obvious. The reason for this will be made clear later.
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Medium autem sono quidem aer est, odori autem innominatum est; communis enim quaedam passio est ab aere et aqua, sicut dyafanum colori, sic est habenti odorem quod est in utrisque his. Videntur enim animalium aquatica habere odoris sensum, sed homo quidem et pedibus ambulantium quaecumque respirant impossibilia sunt odorare nisi respirantia. Causa autem et de his posterius dicetur.
The medium of sound is air, but that of smell has no special name. For a certain passion is common from air and water, and as the transparent is for color, so it is for what has smell, which is present in each of these. For it seems that aquatic animals possess a sense of smell. But man, and whatever of things walking on feet breathe, are unable to smell except when breathing. The cause of this will be dealt with later.
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427. Est autem coloris susceptivum etc. Ostendit philosophus superius quid est color et quid diaphanum et quid lumen; hic ostendit quomodo diaphanum se habeat ad colorem. Manifestum est autem ex praemissis quod diaphanum est susceptivum coloris; est enim color motivus diaphani, ut ibi dictum est; quod autem est susceptivum coloris oportet esse sine colore, sicut quod est susceptivum soni oportet esse sine sono; nihil enim recipit quod iam habet; et sic patet quod oportet diaphanum esse sine colore.
427. Now, that only can receive color (418b26). After showing what color, the transparent, and light are, the Philosopher now proceeds to explain how the transparent is related to color. It is clear from the foregoing that the transparent is receptive of color; for color, we have seen, moves the transparent.1 Now, what can receive color must itself be colorless, just as what receives sound must be soundless; for nothing receives what it already has. The transparent must therefore be without color.
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428. Cum autem corpora sint visibilia per suos colores, sequitur quod diaphanum secundum seipsum sit invisibile; quia vero eadem est potentia cognoscitiva oppositorum, sequitur quod visus qui cognoscit lucem cognoscat et tenebram; licet igitur diaphanum secundum se careat colore et lumine quorum est susceptivum, et sic secundum se visibile non sit eo modo quo sunt visibilia lucida et colorata, tamen potest dici visibile sicut videtur tenebrosum, quod vix videtur. Diaphanum enim est huiusmodi, id est tenebrosum, cum non est actu diaphanum, sed in potentia tantum: eadem enim natura est subiecta quandoque quidem tenebrarum, quandoque autem luminis; et sic diaphanum carens lumine, quod ei accidit dum est in potentia diaphanum, oportet quod sit tenebrosum.
428. But since bodies are visible by their colors, it follows that the transparent in virtue of itself is invisible. Yet since one and the same power knows opposites, it follows that sight, which knows light, also knows darkness. Hence, although the transparent medium of itself lacks color and light, being receptive of both, and is thus not of itself visible in the way that luminous or colored things are visible, it can still be called “visible” in the way that things in shadows, which are barely seen, are so called. For the transparent is of this nature, that is, dark, so long as it is not in act but only in potency; for the same nature is sometimes underlying darkness, but sometimes light. Thus, the transparent, while it lacks light, which occurs when it is potentially transparent, must be in a state of darkness.
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429. Deinde cum dicit: non autem omnia visibilia etc., quia iam determinatum est de colore qui videtur in lumine, determinat de alio visibili quod supra dixit esse innominatum. Et dicit quod non omnia sunt visibilia in lumine, sed solum proprius color uniuscuiusque corporis in lumine visibilis est; quaedam enim non videntur in lumine, sed in tenebris, sicut illa quae in tenebris videntur ignea et lucentia; et haec sunt multa, sed non habent unum nomen commune, sicut putredines quercus et aliquod cornu cuiusdam animalis et capita quorumdam piscium et squamae, et oculi quorumdam animalium; sed, licet ista videantur in tenebris, nullius tamen horum proprius color in tenebris videtur. Videntur ergo ista in tenebris et in lumine, sed in tenebris ut lucentia, in lumine autem ut colorata.
429. Then, at not all visible things (419a1), having determined color, which is seen in light, he determines the other visible object that he said above has no proper name.1 He observes that not all visible things are visible in light, but only the color proper to each body is visible in light. Some things—for example, certain things that appear to burn and are luminous in the dark—are not seen in the light, but only in darkness. There are many such things, including the fungi of certain trees, the horn of certain beasts, the heads of certain fish, and some animals’ scales, and eyes. But, even though these things are visible in the dark, still the color proper to each is not seen in the dark. Such things, then, are seen both in light and in darkness, but in darkness only as luminous, in light as colored.
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430. Sed propter quam causam sic videantur in tenebris lucentia, alia ratio est: non enim hoc inducitur hic nisi quasi per accidens ad ostendendum comparationem visibilis ad lumen.
430. Why these things are seen as luminous in the darkness is a matter for another inquiry. Aristotle only mentions the fact accidentally, in order to show the relation of the visible to light.
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Videtur autem visibilitatis eorum in tenebris haec ratio esse, quia huiusmodi ex sua compositione habent aliquid lucis, inquantum lucidum ignis et diaphanum aeris et aquae non est totaliter in eis oppressum per opacum terrae, sed quia modicum habent de luce, eorum lux ad praesentiam maioris luminis occultatur, unde in lumine non videntur ut lucentia, sed ut colorata tantum. Lux autem eorum propter sui debilitatem non potest diaphanum perfecte reducere in actum secundum quod natum est moveri a colore, unde sub eorum luce nec eorum nec aliorum color videtur, sed solum lux ipsorum; lux enim, cum sit efficacior ad movendum diaphanum quam color et magis visibilis, cum minori immutatione diaphani videri potest.
This, however, seems to be the reason for their being visible in the dark, namely, that such things have in their own constitution something of luminosity, inasmuch as the luminosity of fire and the transparency of air and water is not entirely smothered in them by the opacity of earth. But because they have only a small amount of luminosity, their luminosity is obscured in the presence of a greater light. Hence, in the light they appear not as luminous but only as colored. However, their luminosity is so weak that it is unable perfectly to actualize the transparent insofar as it is naturally apt to be moved by their color. Hence, under their luminosity neither their own color nor that of other things is seen, but only their luminosity. For luminosity, since it is more effective for moving the transparent than is color, and in itself more visible, can be seen with less modification of the transparent.
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431. Deinde cum dicit: nunc autem in tantum etc., ostendit quomodo color perveniat ad visum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
431. Next, at at present what is clear (419a7), he explains how color reaches sight. And about this, he does two things.
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primo ostendit quid est necessarium ad hoc quod visus moveatur a colore;
First, he points out what is necessary for sight to be moved by color.
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secundo ostendit aliquid simile esse necessarium in aliis sensibilibus, ibi: eadem autem ratio etc.
And second, at the same account holds (419a25; [437]), he indicates a similar necessary condition in the case of the other senses.
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Circa primum duo facit: primo ostendit quomodo color videatur; secundo quomodo videantur lucida, ibi: ignis autem. Circa primum duo facit:
About the first, he does two things. First, he shows how color is seen; second, how luminous things are seen, at but fire is seen. Regarding the first, he does two things:
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primo determinat veritatem;
First, he determines the truth of the matter.
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secundo excludit errorem, ibi: non enim bene hoc etc.
And second, at Democritus did not speak well (419a15; [433]), he sets aside an error.
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Dicit ergo primo quod per supra dicta in tantum nunc manifestum sit quod illud quod videtur in lumine est color et quod sine lumine videri non potest, quia, ut supra dictum est, hoc est de ratione coloris quod sit motivum diaphani secundum actum, quod quidem fit per lumen quod est actus diaphani et ideo sine lumine color videri non potest.
First, then, he says that what is clear is that what is seen in light is color, and that color cannot be seen without light; and this is because, as has been explained, it belongs to the account of color that it is able to move the transparent in act, and it does this in virtue of light, which is the act of the transparent.1 Hence, light is necessary if color is to be seen.
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432. Cuius signum est quod, si aliquis ponat corpus coloratum super organum visus, non videtur, quia non est ibi diaphanum in actu quod moveatur a colore, nam etsi pupilla sit quoddam diaphanum, non tamen erit diaphanum in actu si superponatur sibi corpus coloratum; oportet autem quod color moveat diaphanum in actu, puta aerem vel aliquod aliud huiusmodi, et ab hoc movetur sensitivum, id est organum visus, sicut a corpore sibi continuato; corpora enim non se immutant, nisi se tangant.
432. A sign of this is the fact that if someone places a colored body upon the organ of sight, it cannot be seen; for then there remains no actually transparent medium to be moved by the color. For although the pupil of the eye is a certain transparent thing, still it will not be actually transparent so long as the colored body remains placed upon it. Color, however, must move what is actually transparent, say, air or something of the kind, and the sensitive organ, that is, the organ of sight, is moved by this, as by a body continuous with itself. For bodies only affect one another through contact.
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433. Deinde cum dicit: non enim bene etc., excludit errorem, dicens quo non bene dixit Democritus qui opinatus fuit quod, si medium quod est inter rem visam et oculum esset vacuum, quod posset aliquid quantumcumque parvum videri per quantamcumque distantiam, puta si formica esset in caelo. Sed hoc est impossibile. Oportet enim ad hoc quod aliquid videatur quod organum visus patiatur a visibili;
433. Then, at Democritus did not speak well (419a15), he sets aside an erroneous view. Democritus, he says, did not speak well when he put forward the opinion that if the medium between the eye and the thing seen were a vacuum, any object, however small, would be visible at any distance, for example, if an ant were in the sky. But this cannot be, for if anything is to be seen, it must actually affect the organ of sight.
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ostensum est autem quod non potest pati ab ipso visibili immediate, quia visibile superpositum oculo non videtur; relinquitur ergo quod oporteat organum visus pati a visibili per aliquod medium; necesse est ergo esse aliquod medium inter visibile et visum. Si autem est vacuum, nihil est medium quod posset immutare et immutari. Relinquitur igitur quod, si esset vacuum, omnino nihil videretur.
Now, it has been shown that it cannot be acted upon by an immediate object, since the visible placed on the eye is not seen. So it remains that the organ of sight must be acted upon by the visible through some medium: so there must be a medium between the visible object and the sight. But if there is a vacuum, there is no medium that can change or be changed. Hence, if it were a vacuum, it would not be seen at all.
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434. Incidit autem in hanc opinionem Democritus quia putavit quod causa quare distantia impedit visionem alicuius rei sit propter medium quod resistit immutationi visibilis. Hoc autem falsum est. Non enim diaphanum habet contrarietatem ad lumen vel colorem, sed est in ultima dispositione ad eorum receptionem, cuius signum est quod subito immutatur a lumine vel colore. Causa autem quare distantia impedit visum est quia omne corpus videtur sub quodam angulo cuiusdam trianguli vel magis pyramidis, cuius basis est in re visa et angulus est in oculo videntis;
434. Democritus went wrong because he thought that the reason why distance impedes the sight of something is that the medium is of itself an impediment to the action of the visible object. But it is false. For the transparent has no contrariety to light or color; rather, it is in the last disposition to their reception, a sign of which is that it is modified by light or color instantaneously. The real reason why distance impedes sight is that everything seen is seen within the angle of a sort of triangle, or rather, a pyramid, whose base is the object seen and whose apex is in the eye that sees.
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435. nec differt quantum ad hoc utrum visus fiat extramittendo, ita quod lineae concludentes triangulum vel pyramidem sint lineae vel visuales progredientes a visu ad rem visam, vel e converso, <dummodo> fiat sub praedicta figura trianguli vel pyramidis, quod ideo necesse est quia, cum res visa sit maior quantitate quam pupilla, oportet quod proportionaliter diminuendo perveniat immutatio visibilis usque ad visum; manifestum est autem quod, quanto latera trianguli vel pyramidis sunt longiora, dummodo sit eadem basis, tanto angulus est minor, et ideo quod a remotiori videtur, minus videtur, et tanta potest esse distantia quod omnino non videtur.
435. Nor does it make a difference for this whether seeing takes place by a movement from the eye outwards—so that the lines enclosing the triangle or pyramid run from the eye to the object—or in the opposite way, so long as seeing does involve this triangular or pyramidal figure; and this is necessary, because, since the object seen is larger than the pupil of the eye, its effect upon the medium has to be scaled down gradually until it reaches the eye. And, obviously, the longer are the sides of a triangle or pyramid, the smaller is the angle at the apex, provided that the base remains the same. The further away, then, is the object seen, the less is it seen—until at a certain distance it cannot be seen at all.
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436. Deinde cum dicit: ignis autem etc., ostendit quomodo videatur ignis et corpora lucida. Et dicit quod videntur non solum in lumine sicut colorata, sed etiam in tenebris, sicut illa de quibus supra dixit, et hoc ex necessitate contingit, quia ignis habet tantum de lumine quod potest diaphanum omnino facere in actu, ita ut et ipsum et alia videantur, nec est tam debile lumen eius quod ad praesentiam maioris luminis obumbretur sicut accidit in his quae supra dicta sunt.
436. Next, at but fire (419a23), he explains how fire and luminous bodies are seen. And he says that they are seen not only in light, like colored objects, but even in the dark. It is necessarily so, because fire contains enough light that it can make the transparent wholly in act, such that both itself and other things are seen. Nor is its light so weak that it is overshadowed in the presence of a greater light, as happens with the objects mentioned above.
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437. Deinde cum dicit: eadem autem ratio etc., ostendit quod similiter se habet in aliis sensibus sicut in visu. Et dicit quod eadem ratio est de sono et de odore sicut et de colore: nullum enim horum sentitur si tangat organum sensus, sed ab odore et sono moventur media, a medio autem utrumque organorum, auditus scilicet et olfactus; sed cum aliquis ponit corpus odorans aut sonans super organum sensus, non sentitur. Et similiter est in tactu et gustu, licet non videatur, propter causam quae inferius dicetur.
437. Then, at the same account (419a25), he shows how the case of the other senses is similar to sight. And he says that the same account holds for both sound and smell as for color, for none of these is sensed if there is immediate contact with the organ in question. But a medium is moved by the sound and smell, and one or the other of the organs of hearing and smell by the medium. But when someone puts a body that sounds or smells upon the organ of the sense, it is not sensed. The same is true even of touch and taste, though, for a reason to be given later, this is less evident.1
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438. Deinde ostendit quid sit medium in his sensibus. Et dicit quod medium quod movetur a sono est aer, medium autem quod movetur ab odore est aliquid commune aeri et aquae, sicut utrumque horum est medium quod movetur a colore, sed a colore movetur utrumque horum secundum quod est diaphanum, passio autem communis aeri et aquae secundum quam moventur ab odore est innominata; non enim moventur ab odore secundum quod sunt diaphana.
438. Finally, at the medium of sound (419a32), he states what is the medium in hearing and smelling. That of hearing is air, and that of smelling is something common to air and water—just as both of these is a medium that is moved by color, though each is moved by color insofar as it is transparent. There is indeed no name for the passion in air and water that is moved by the smell; for they are not moved by the smell insofar as they are transparent.
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Et quod utrumque horum movetur ab odore, manifestat per hoc quod animalia aquatica habent sensum odoris, ex quo manifestum est quod aqua movetur ab odore, homo autem et animalia gressibilia respirantia, non odorant nisi respirando, et sic manifestum est quod aer est medium in odoratu. Horum autem causa posterius dicetur.
And that both air and water are moved by smell he shows from the fact that aquatic animals have a sense of smell, which manifests this. Man, however, and other animals that walk and breathe, only smell by breathing, which proves that air is the medium of smell. The cause of this will be dealt with later.1
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L. 16 (B.8, 419b4–419b33)The causes of sound and echo
Dividit sonum in sonum in actu et in potentia; et exponit quomodo, et quot modis, et in quo subiecto fiat; et declarat quomodo generetur echo, et duas illius ponit species
The causes of sound and echo
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Nunc autem primum de sono et olfactu determinemus. Est autem duplex sonus: hic quidem enim actus quidam, alius autem potentia; alia enim non dicimus habere sonum, ut spongiam, lanam, quaedam autem habent ut es et quaecumque plana et levia sunt, quoniam possunt sonare. Hoc autem est ipsius medii et auditus facere sonum actu.
Now let us start by treating of sound and smell. Sound is twofold: the sort that is a certain act, and the sort that is potential. For certain things, we say, have no sound, such as sponges, wool, and fur; while others, such as bronze and all other smooth and hard things, have sound, because they are able to produce it, i.e., to cause actual sound in the medium and in the hearing.
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Fit autem qui secundum actum sonus semper alicuius ad aliquid et in aliquo: percussio enim est faciens.
Sound in act is always of something, on something, and in something: for it is caused by percussion.
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Unde impossibile est cum sit unum fieri sonum:
Hence it is impossible for anything by itself, as a single thing, to produce sound.
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alterum enim est verberans et quod verberatur, quare sonans ad aliquid sonat. Tangit enim aliquid, cum autem ictu tetigerit, sonat. Ictus autem non fit sine motu.
For there must be one thing that strikes and another that is struck; hence, whatever emits sound does so on something, i.e., by contact with something—which, when touched with a blow, sounds. And the blow necessarily implies movement.
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Sicut autem diximus, non quorumcumque contingentium ictus sonus est: nullum enim faciunt sonum pili, etsi percutiantur. Sed es et quaecumque levia et concava sunt; es quidem quoniam leve est, concava autem repercussione faciunt multos ictus post primum, inpotenti exire quod motum est.
As we said before, it is not a blow upon anything whatever that gives sound: wool makes no sound, although it be struck; but bronze, or anything smooth and hollow, does—bronze because it is smooth, while hollow things by repercussion produce many blows after the first because what is set in motion cannot find an outlet.
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Amplius auditur in aere et in aqua autem, sed minus. Non est autem soni proprius aer neque aqua, sed oportet firmorum percussionem fieri ad invicem et ad aera. Hoc autem fit cum permaneat percussus aer et non solvatur. Unde si velociter et fortiter percutiatur, sonat; oportet enim preoccupare motum ferientis fracturam aeris, sicut si congregationem aut cumulum lapillorum percutiat aliquis latum velociter.
Further, sound is heard in air and water, but less in water. It is, however, neither air nor water that properly sounds; there must be a percussion of solid objects on each other, and on air. This happens if air is confined when struck and cannot disperse. Hence if the striking is rapid and violent, sound results. For the movement of what strikes must be sudden, if it is to outrun the breaking up of the air, just as if one were to strike a rapidly moving heap of sand or pile of stones.
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Echon autem fit cum ab aere uno facto propter vas determinans et prohibens diffundi, iterum aer repellitur, sicut spera.
Echo arises when air rebounds like a ball against air that is rendered a compact unity by a restraining vessel that prevents its dispersion.
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Videtur autem semper fieri echon, sed non certus, quia accidit in sono sicut et in lumine. Et enim lumen semper repercutitur; neque enim fieret penitus lumen, sed tenebra extra solem; sed non sic repercutitur sicut ab aqua aut aere aut et ab aliquo alio levium, quare tenebram facit qua lumen determinamus.
It seems there is always some echo, but not always a clear one. For the same occurs with sound as with light, which also is always reflected, otherwise it would not spread to every part, but beyond the area illuminated by the sun there would be darkness. Still, it is not thus reflected as it is reflected by water or air or other smooth things; hence, it makes the shadow by which we discern the boundaries of light.
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439. Nunc autem primum de sono etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de visibili, hic determinat de audibili, id est de sono. Et dividitur in partes duas:
439. Now let us start by treating of sound (419b4). Having defined the visible, the Philosopher now deals with the audible, that is, with sound. This section divides into two parts.
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in prima determinat de sono in communi;
In the first, he deals with sound in general.
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in secunda determinat de quadam specie soni, scilicet de voce, ibi: vox autem sonus etc.
In the second, he deals with one kind of sound, namely, voice, at voice (420b5; [466]).
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Prima dividitur in partes duas:
The first part is again divided into two parts.
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in prima determinat de sono;
First, he deals with sound itself;
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in secunda de differentiis sonorum, ibi: differentiae autem etc.
second, he deals with the differences of sound, at differences in sonorous things (420a26; [461]).
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Prima dividitur in duas:
The first part again subdivides.
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in prima determinat de sono;
In the first part, he reaches a determination about sound.
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in secunda movet quamdam dubitationem circa praedeterminata, ibi: utrum autem sonat etc.
In the second, he raises a doubt about this determination, at is it that which strikes (420a19; [459]).
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Prima dividitur in duas:
The first of these sections again divides into two conclusions.
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in prima determinat de generatione soni;
In the first, he reaches a conclusion about the generation of sound.
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in secunda de immutatione auditus a sono, ibi: vacuum autem recte etc.
And in the second, he determines the way that sound affects the hearing, at but a vacuum (419b33; [451]).
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Si autem quaeratur quare determinat hic de generatione soni, cum supra non determinaverit de generatione coloris, sed solum de immutatione sensus et medii a colore, dicendum est quod color et odor et sapor et qualitates tangibiles habent esse permanens et fixum in suo subiecto,
Should it be asked why he now raises the question of the generation of sound, whereas he did not deal with the generation of color, but only with color’s effects on the sense organ and the medium, the answer is that color and odor and taste and the tangible qualities have a fixed and lasting existence in their subjects.1
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unde est alia consideratio istarum qualitatum secundum se et secundum quod immutant sensum, et propter hoc alterius est considerationis utrumque; unde Aristoteles de generatione coloris et saporis et odoris determinat in libro De sensu et sensato, de qualitatibus autem tangibilibus in libro De generatione et quantum ad aliqua in libro Meteororum, in hoc autem libro non intendit determinare de sensibilibus nisi inquantum sunt immutativa sensus. Sonus autem causatur ex motu et non habet esse fixum et quiescens in subiecto, sed in quadam immutatione consistit; unde simul determinatur de eo secundum quod generatur in sua specie et secundum quod immutat sensum. Prima autem pars dividitur in duas:
The consideration, therefore, of these qualities in themselves is one thing, and that of the way they affect the senses is another. The two questions are quite distinct. So the Philosopher deals with the generation of color, taste, and smell in his work On Sense and What is Sensed;1 and he deals with the generation of tangible qualities in On Generation2 and, in part, also in the Meteorology;3 while in the present book, he is only considering the objects of sensation insofar as they affect the sense organs. But as sound is caused by change and has no fixed and resting existence in a subject, but consists in a certain change, it can be considered at one and the same time insofar as it is generated in its species and insofar as it affects the sense. Its origin, then, is regarded under two aspects.
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in prima determinat de prima generatione soni;
First, he deals with the primary origin of sound.
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in secunda de secunda generatione soni, quae fit per reflexionem, ibi: echo autem fit etc.
Second, at echo arises (419b25; [447]), he deals with its secondary origin, produced by reverberation.
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Circa primum duo facit:
About the first, he does two things.
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primo ostendit quod sonus quandoque est in actu, quandoque in potentia;
First, he explains that sound is sometimes in act and sometimes in potency.
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secundo ostendit quomodo fit sonus in actu, ibi: fit autem secundum actum etc.
Second, he shows how sound comes to be in act, at sound in act (419b9; [442]).
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440. Dicit ergo primo quod, antequam determinetur de tactu et de gustu, dicendum est de sono et olfactu, sed primo de sono, quia spiritualior est, ut supra ostensum est. Sonus autem est duplex: dicitur enim sonus in actu et in potentia; dicimus enim aliquam rem habere sonum et quando actu sonat et quando habet potentiam sonandi, sicut dicimus: haec campana bene sonat, quamvis non sonet in actu; et secundum hunc modum dicimus quod quaedam non habent sonum quia non habent sonandi potentiam, sicut spongia et lana et huiusmodi mollia; quaedam autem dicuntur habere sonum quia possunt sonare, sicut aes et alia huiusmodi plana et levia; sic ergo patet quod sonus quandoque dicitur secundum potentiam.
440. He says first, then, that before dealing with touch and taste, we must consider sound and smell (419b4); but first we must consider sound, because it is more spiritual, as has been shown.1 We speak of sound in two ways: as in act and as in potency. We say a thing has a sound when it is actually sounding and also when it is only able to make sounds, as when we say, “this bell sounds well,” though it may not be actually ringing. In the same way we say of some things that they have no sound, meaning that they have no power to produce sound, for example, sponges and wool and similar soft objects; whereas other things, on the contrary, are said to have a sound because they are especially able to produce sound, such as bronze, and other smooth and hard things. So it is clear that sound is sometimes spoken of as potential.
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441. Sed quod fiat sonus in actu, hoc pertinet et ad medium et ad auditum. Omne enim sensibile dupliciter dicitur esse in actu: uno modo quando actu sentitur, hoc est dum species eius est in sensu, et sic sonus est in actu secundum quod est in auditu; alio modo secundum quod habet propriam speciem per quam sentiri potest prout est in suo subiecto, et sic alia sensibilia sunt in actu prout sunt in corporibus sensibilibus, sicut color prout est in corpore colorato et odor et sapor prout sunt in corpore odorifero et saporoso. Sic autem non est de sono: nam in corpore sonante non est sonus nisi in potentia, in medio autem quod movetur ex percussione corporis sonantis fit sonus in actu; et propter hoc dicitur quod sonus in actu est medii et auditus, non autem subiecti sonabilis.
441. But sound in act involves the medium and the power of hearing. For we can speak of a sense-object as being in act in two ways: in one way, insofar as the sensible object is actually being sensed, that is, when its species is in the sense. In this way, a sound is actual when it is heard. In another way, insofar as the object has the proper species through which it is able to be sensed, but is such in its own subject. And in this way the other sense-objects, color, odor, savor, etc., exist in act in colored or odorous or savorable bodies. But not so with sound; for in a sound-productive body, there is sound only potentially: actual sound exists only when the medium is affected by a disturbance from that body. Therefore the act of sound exists, he says, in the medium and in the hearing, but not in the body that is able to sound.
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442. Deinde cum dicit: fit autem qui secundum actum etc., ostendit quomodo sonus fiat in actu. Et circa hoc duo facit:
442. Then, at sound in act (419b9), Aristotle shows how sound actually comes about. And about this, he does two things.
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primo ostendit quot concurrunt ad hoc quod sonus fiat in actu;
First, he shows how sound comes into act with regard to the number of factors required;
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secundo ostendit qualia ea oporteat esse, ibi: sicut autem diximus etc.
and second, at as we said before (419b13; [443]), he shows this with regard to what these factors are.
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Dicit ergo primo quod ad hoc quod sonus fiat in actu oportet tria concurrere: fit enim semper alicuius, ad aliquid et in aliquo, et ideo, si sit unum tantum, non potest facere sonum; et huius ratio est quia percussio est causa soni, oportet igitur esse aliquid percutiens et aliquid percussum,
First, then, there are three concurrent factors in sound: sound is of something, on something, and in something. Therefore, no single thing by itself can produce sound—the reason of this being that the cause of sound is percussion, which implies a thing struck and a striker.
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et propter hoc dixit quod sonus est alicuius ad aliquid, id est percutientis ad percussum: oportet enim quod illud quod facit sonum, tangat aliquid, et cum tetigerit suo ictu, tunc generetur sonus. Ictus autem percutientis non fit sine motu locali; motus autem localis non fit sine medio; unde relinquitur quod oportet esse medium ad hoc quod fiat sonus in actu. Et hoc est quod dictum est quod oportet esse sonum in actu non solum alicuius et ad aliquid, sed etiam in aliquo.
Hence, his saying that sound is of something, on something, that is, of the thing striking and on the thing struck. For what produces sound must touch something as with a sudden blow, thereby generating the sound. Now, a blow implies local movement, which implies a medium. Hence, the need for a medium, if sound is to be produced actually. Hence, his saying that there must be sound in act not only of something and on something, but also in something.
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443. Deinde cum dicit: sicut autem diximus etc., ostendit qualia oportet esse ea quae requiruntur ad soni generationem.
443. When he says, as we said before (419b13), he shows what sort of factors are required for the generation of sound.
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Et primo ostendit qualia oportet esse percutiens et percussum;
And first, he shows of what sort must the striking and the struck objects be;
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secundo quale oporteat esse medium, ibi: amplius auditur etc.
and second, at further (419b18; [445]), what sort of thing the medium must be.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, sicut supra dictum est, sonus non fit ex percussione quorumcumque contingentium corporum; dictum est enim supra quod pili et spongia et huiusmodi mollia non habent potentiam sonandi, unde nullum sonum faciunt, etiam si percutiantur; cuius ratio est quia mollia cedunt percutienti, unde ex percussione non extruditur aer ut sic in eo possit sonus formari ex ictu percutientis et resistentia percussi; sed si huiusmodi mollia comprimantur ut aliquam duritiem habeant et resistant percutienti, sequitur sonus licet surdus. Sed aes et corpora levia et concava sua percussione faciunt sonum; necesse est enim quod illa ex quorum percussione sonus redditur sint dura, ut aer extrudatur, quae quidem extrusio est causa generationis soni; requiritur etiam quod sint levia, ut sit aer unus, sicut infra dicetur;
First, then, as we have already noted, sound is not produced by striking any material body whatever. Wool (and sponges and suchlike soft things) makes no sound, even when struck, the reason being that soft things yield to the impact, so that no air is expelled by it—no air in which a sound might be formed by the blow of a striker and the resistance of something struck. Yet when such soft things are compressed firmly enough to resist an impact, then a sound results, though only a dull one. But bronze objects and bodies that are smooth and hollow give out sound when struck. Hardness is needed, else air will not be driven out by the blow, and consequently, no sound be caused. And the body struck should also be smooth, so that the air expelled may hold compactly together in one, as will be explained below.1
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444. concava etiam percussa bene reddunt sonum, quia in eis aer intro concluditur et, cum illud quod primo motum est non possit statim exire, percutit alium aerem et sic ex repercussione fiunt multi ictus et multiplicatur sonus. Et propter hoc etiam illa quae in sui compositione habent aerem bene dispositum, sunt bene sonora, sicut aes et argentum; in quorum autem compositione aer non bene se habet, sunt male sonora, sicut plumbum et alia huiusmodi, quae sunt magis feculenta et terrestria.
444. Hollow bodies give out sound very well when struck because they hold the air in, and, as this air first set in motion cannot at once find an outlet, it disturbs the rest of the air, and thus by repercussion, the impact and the sounding are multiplied. For this reason also, materials with a suitable disposition of air in their composition are especially sonorous, such as bronze and silver; but materials in which air is less well disposed are less sonorous, like lead and such things as are more earthy and sedimentary.
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445. Deinde cum dicit: amplius auditur etc., ostendit quale sit medium in quo generatur sonus. Et dicit quod medium in quo sonus auditur est aer et aqua, licet minus auditur in aqua quam in aere; unde propriissimum medium tam in generatione soni quam in auditu, est aer. Et quia medium in quolibet sensu qualitatibus sensibilibus secundum illum sensum caret ut possit omnes recipere, manifestum est quod neque aer neque aqua habent proprium sonum, sed necessarium est ad generationem soni in aere vel aqua quod aliqua corpora firma, id est solida et dura, percutiant se invicem et percutiant aerem.
445. Then, at further, sound is heard (419b18), he explains the medium in which sound is produced, observing that the medium of sound is air or water, but water less than air. The most suitable medium for both the production and the reception of sound is air. And since the medium of any sense must lack all the sensible qualities perceived by that sense if it is to serve as the receiver of them, it is evident that neither air nor water has a sound of its own; but if sound is to be produced in air or water, some firm and solid and hard objects must strike upon one another, and so cause an impact on the air.
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446. Quod autem simul fiat percussio solidorum ad invicem et ad aera, contingit cum aer in sua integritate manet ut possit percuti et non dividitur ante percussionem. Et propter hoc videmus quod, si aliquid tardo motu tangat alterum, non facit sonum, quia prius recedit aer et dissolvitur quam contactus solidorum fiat, sed, si percussio sit velox et fortis, tunc fit sonus, quia ad hoc quod fiat sonus oportet quod motus percutientis praeveniat divisionem aeris, ut aer adhuc adunatus et collectus percuti possit et in eo sonus generari; et est simile sicut cum aliquis velociter fertur, percutere potest acervum lapidum antequam dissolvatur, quod non contingit fieri si tarde moveatur; et propter hoc etiam quando aliquid velociter fertur in ipso aere, facit sonum ex suo motu, quia ipse aer adhuc adunatus se habet in ratione percussi et non solum medii.
446. Now, if the impact of solid bodies on each other is to be simultaneous with the production of sound on the air, it is necessary that the air remain in its integrity, that it be not broken up before receiving the effect of the impact. Hence it is, as experience shows, that when two bodies are brought slowly together, no sound occurs: for the air recedes and melts away before the contact is made. But if the impact is swift and violent, then a sound results; for if sound is to occur, the movement of what strikes must precede the division of the air, so that the air can be struck while still united or collected and so a sound be produced in it. It is as when one strikes swiftly, hitting a whole heap of stones all at once before they fall apart, which does not happen if they are slowly moved. For the same reason, when anything passes rapidly through the air, it makes a noise as it goes, because the air itself, being compact, serves as the object struck, not merely as the medium.
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447. Deinde cum dicit: echo autem etc., determinat de secunda generatione soni, quae fit per reverberationem; qui quidem sonus vocatur echo.
447. Next, at echo arises (419b25), he deals with the secondary production of sound, which is by reverberation. This sound is called echo.
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Primo ergo determinat quomodo generetur;
He settles, first, how echo itself is produced;
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secundo diversitatem ostendit in eius generatione, ibi: videtur autem semper etc.
and second, at it seems (419b27; [450]), how its varieties occur.
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Considerandum est ergo circa primum quod generatio soni in aere consequitur motum aeris, ut dictum est. Sic autem contingit de immutatione aeris apud generationem soni sicut de immutatione aquae cum aliquid in aquam proicitur: manifestum est enim quod fiunt quaedam gyrationes in circuitu aquae percussae, quae quidem circa locum percussionis sunt parvae et motus est fortis, in remotis autem gyrationes sunt maiores et motus debilior, tandem autem motus totaliter evanescit et gyrationes cessant; si autem antequam vis motus cesset, gyrationes illae aliquod obstaculum inveniant fit motus regyrationis in contrarium et tanto vehementius quanto propinquius fuerit primae percussioni.
With regard to the former point, we may note that the production of sound in air follows the movement of air, as has been said. What takes place in the air when sound is produced is like what happens in water when something is thrown into it. Obviously, circular undulations form in the water where it is hit; and these are small around the point of striking, but with a strong movement, while, further away, the undulations are large and the movement is weak. Ultimately, the movement disappears altogether and the undulations cease. But if the undulations meet an obstacle before they cease moving, a contrary undulation is set up, so much the more violent as it is closer to the original impact.
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448. Sic igitur intelligendum est quod ad percussionem corporum sonantium aer in gyro movetur et sonus undique diffunditur et in vicino quidem gyrationes sunt minores sed motus fortior, unde et sonus certius percipitur, in remotis autem gyrationes sunt maiores et motus debilior et sonus obscurius auditur, tandem autem totum deficit; si autem, antequam deficiant huiusmodi gyrationes, fiat reverberatio aeris sic moti et sonum deferentis ad aliquod corpus, regyrationes revertuntur in contrarium et sic auditur sonus quasi ex adverso; et haec vocatur echo.
448. Now, in a similar way, when sounding bodies strike together, the air is moved in a circular motion and the sound diffused in all directions. Near to the impact, the undulations are smaller, but the motion is stronger. Hence, there the sound will be very distinctly perceived. Further away, the undulations are larger and the motion weaker, and the sound heard less clearly; and at length it ceases altogether. But if, before such undulations fail, the air thus moving and carrying sound is repulsed from some body, the undulations return on their tracks and a new sound comes in the reverse direction. And this is called an “echo.”
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449. Quod praecipue fit quando illud obstans ad quod repercutitur aer motus est aliquod corpus concavum, quasi quoddam vas detinens et concludens aerem in sua unitate et ideo prohibens ipsum dividi;
449. This effect is realized most perfectly when the obstacle in question is hollow, for then it acts like a vessel (419b25) that holds the air together in its own unity, preventing its dispersal.
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tunc enim ille aer sic unitus et commotus, quia non potest ulterius motum protendere propter corpus obstans, percutit iterum aerem a quo percutiebatur et fit motus in contrarium, sicut accidit cum aliquis proicit pilam, quae hic sphaera dicitur, et inveniens obstaculum, resilit.
For then the moving air, thus held together and unable to move further because of the obstacle, is thrown back on the air behind and a reverse movement begins, just as when a ball thrown against an obstacle rebounds.
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450. Deinde cum dicit: videtur autem semper etc., ostendit quomodo diversimode fit echo. Et dicit quod semper fit echo, sed non semper fit certus, id est manifeste perceptibilis,
450. Then, where he says, it seems (419b27), he explains how echo occurs in various ways, saying that there would seem to be always some echo produced, but it is not always a clear one, that is, clearly perceptible.
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et hoc manifestat per simile. Dicit enim quod accidit in sono sicut et in lumine: lumen enim semper repercutitur, sed quandoque quidem est manifesta repercussio, quandoque autem non; manifesta quidem est repercussio luminis quando repercutitur ab aliquo corpore fulgido ita quod cum quadam claritate fit luminis repercussio simili modo primae luminis emissioni, immanifesta autem est repercussio luminis quando repercutitur ab aliquo corpore opaco, quia huiusmodi repercussio fit sine claritate et radiorum emissione;
This he shows by a simile drawn from light. Light, he says, is always reflected; but sometimes the reflection is perceptible, sometimes not. The reflection of light is visible when it comes from a shining body; for then the reflection is accompanied by some brightness, as was the original emission of light. The reflection is not visible when it comes from an opaque body, for then the reflection takes place with no brightness or emission of radiance.
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nisi enim a corporibus opacis fieret repercussio radiorum solis, non fieret lumen penitus, id est in qualibet parte aeris superioris hemisphaerii, sed ubique esse tenebra extra solem, id est extra loca ad quae directe perveniunt radii solares; non tamen sic repercutitur lumen a corporibus opacis sicut ab aqua aut aere aut aliquo corpore levium et tersorum a quibus fit repercussio cum claritate et radiorum emissione
For unless the sun’s rays were reflected by opaque bodies there would be no light at all in the air of any part of the upper hemisphere, but instead, beyond the area illuminated by the sun there would be darkness, that is, outside the places reached by the solar rays directly. But light is not reflected by opaque bodies in the same way as by water or air or any of the smooth and polished bodies which throw back light brightly and radiantly.
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et ideo, quia repercussio quae fit a corporibus opacis non est similis repercussioni quae fit a corporibus fulgidis, repercussio quae fit a corporibus opacis facit tenebram, id est umbram, ex illa parte ubi determinatur lumen manifestum, quod est ex directa emissione radiorum solarium. Similiter autem, quando repercussio soni fit ad corpus concavum in quo natus est multiplicari sonus, fit echo certus, id est manifeste comprehensibilis; quando autem ad alia corpora fit reverberatio soni quae non sunt nata multiplicare sonum, non fit echo manifestus.
Therefore, the reflection from opaque bodies is not like that of a shining body, for the reflection from opaque bodies makes darkness, that is, it forms a shadow, which is outside that part where the manifest light is limited. So also, then, when the repercussion of sound takes place in a hollow body, wherein sound cannot but be multiplied, a clear and distinctly perceptible echo results. But when the repercussion of sound is from other bodies which do not naturally redouble it, there is no perceptible echo.
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L. 17 (B.8, 419b33–420b5)High and low sounds and the medium of hearing
Quomodo fiat sonus in medio aere uno et continuo existenti; quod in aure item sit aer aedificatus et immobilis ut fiat auditus probat; quae etiam demum causa sit soni, et illius differentias, et acuti et gravis ex similitudine ad qualitates tangibiles declarat
High and low sounds and the medium of hearing
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Vacuum autem recte dicitur proprium audiendi; videtur enim esse vacuum aer. Hic autem est faciens audire, cum moveatur continuus et unus.
But a vacuum is rightly said to be proper to hearing—for air seems to be a vacuum. But this, when moved as a simple continuum, causes hearing.
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Sed propter id quod fragilis est, non sonat, nisi leve sit quod percutitur: tunc autem unus fit; simul enim propter planum, unum enim est levis planum. Sonativum quidem igitur quod motivum unius aeris continuitate usque ad auditum.
On account of its instability, however, it gives no sound unless what is struck be smooth; then it has the required unity, holding together on account of the even surface, for the surface of a smooth thing is uniform. The sonorous, therefore, is that which moves a compact mass of air continuously as far as the organ of hearing.
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Auditus autem connaturalis est aeri; propter id autem quod in aere est, moto exteriori quod infra movetur. Propter quod quidem non ubique audit animal, neque ubique penetrat aer: non enim ubique habet aerem movenda pars et animatum, sicut pupilla humidum.
Hearing is naturally conjoined with air; and because it is in air, therefore, by a movement in the air outside is caused an interior movement also. Hence an animal does not hear all over its body, nor does air penetrate everywhere. For the ensouled body and the part to be set in motion have not air throughout (as also there is liquid only in the pupil).
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Per se quidem igitur insonabilis aer, propter id quod facile cessibilis est. Cum vero prohibeatur defluere, huiusmodi motus sonus est. Hic autem [est] in auribus aedificatus est cum hoc quod immobilis est, quatinus certe sentiat omnes differentias motus.
Of itself air is soundless, for, being mobile, it easily yields. But when its motion cannot be diffused, a sound arises. There is air built into the ears so as to be immobile; and it accordingly senses every variety of motion with exactitude.
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Propter hoc autem et in aqua audimus, quoniam non ingreditur ad ipsum connaturalem aerem, sed neque in aurem propter reflexiones. Cum autem hoc accidat, non audit; neque si miringa, sicut que in pupilla pellis, laboret.
On this account, therefore, we hear also in water, for this does not penetrate to that inner air, nor, by reason of its many convolutions, into the ear. Should it do so, one would not hear; nor would we hear if the eardrum were ailing—just as we do not see if the cornea of the pupil is diseased.
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Sed signum est audiendi aut non, sonare semper aurem sicut cornu; semper enim quodam proprio motu aer movetur in auribus, sed sonus extraneus et non proprius est. Et propter hoc dicunt audire vacuo et sonanti, quia audimus habente determinatum aerem.
A test of good hearing, on the contrary, is whether there is a continual ringing in the ear, like a horn. For then the air in the ear is perpetually moving by a motion of its own, whereas sound is external and is not the ear’s own. And for this reason they say that we hear by a “resounding vacuum,” because we hear by what holds air in constraint.
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Utrum autem sonat verberans aut quod verberatur? Aut utrumque, modo autem altero; est enim sonus motus possibilis moveri hoc modo quo quidem saltantia a levibus, cum aliquis truserit. Non igitur, sicut dictum est, omne sonat quod verberatur et verberans, ut si obiciatur acus acui, sed oportet quod percutitur regulare esse, ut aer subito dissiliat et moveatur.
Is it that which strikes, or that which is struck, which sounds? Or both, but in different ways? For sound is a movement of something that can move in the way that a bouncing body flies off a smooth surface one flings it at. As has been said, not everything that strikes or is struck gives a sound, for instance, one needle struck against another. But what is struck must have a plane surface smooth and regular so that the air rebound and be set in motion instantaneously.
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Differentiae autem sonantium in sono secundum actum ostenduntur: sicut enim non videntur colores sine lumine, sic neque sine sono acutum et grave.
Differences in sonorous things are apparent in the act of sounding. For just as colors are not seen without light, so there is no high or low note apart from sounding.
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Haec autem dicuntur secundum methaphoram ab illis quae tanguntur.
These terms are used by metaphor from things perceived by touch.1
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Acutum enim movet sensum in pauco tempore in multum; grave autem in multo in paucum.
A high note moves the sense organ much in a brief space of time; the low note, little, in a longer time.
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Neque tamen velox est acutum, grave autem tardum, sed fit huius quidem propter velocitatem huiusmodi motus, illius vero propter tarditatem.
But this does not mean that the fast is the high and the slow the low; rather, the former arises because of swiftness of motion, the latter because of slowness.
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Et videntur similitudinem habere circa tactum cum acuto et hebeti; acutum enim quasi pungit, hebes vero quasi pellit, propter id quod movet hoc quidem in pauco, illud autem in multo, quare accidit hoc quidem velox, illud autem tardum esse.
So there seems to be an analogy with the tangible, as sharp and blunt. For the sharp pierces, while the blunt thuds; and the reason is that the one moves in a brief period, the other in a greater. Hence it comes about that the former is swift, but the latter is slow.
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De sono igitur sic determinatum sit.
Let this serve to determine sound.
451. Vacuum autem recte dicitur etc. Postquam determinavit philosophus de generatione soni, hic determinat de immutatione sensus a sono.
451. But a vacuum is rightly said (419b33). After deciding about the generation of sound, the Philosopher now comes to certain conclusions about sound’s impression on sense:
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Et primo quantum ad immutationem medi;
and first, inasmuch as it is an impression on a medium;
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secundo quantum ad immutationem instrumenti, ibi: auditus autem etc.
and second, at hearing is (420a4; [453]), inasmuch as it is an impression on the instrument or organ of sense.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, quia medium in sono est aer, recte dicitur a quibusdam quod vacuum est proprium sensui auditus, quia videtur eis quod vacuum sit aer. Aer autem facit audire sonum cum moveatur existens continuus et unus, ut in eo possit formari sonus. Et quia, ad hoc quod formetur sonus, necessaria est unitas et continuitas aeris, ideo non fit sonus nisi sonabile quod percutitur sit levae; levae enim est cuius una pars non supereminet alteri, asperum autem cuius una pars alicui supereminet; unde manifestum est quod superficies corporis levis est simpliciter una, et propter hoc aer propter unitatem plani, id est superficiei, fit unus et simul existens; si autem corpus non sit levae, sed asperum, tunc superficies non est una et, quia aer est fragilis, id est facile divisibilis, sequitur quod etiam aer non sit unus et continuus, unde non potest in eo formari sonus.
First, then, he observes that, the medium of sound being air, it has been rightly said that a vacuum is proper to hearing (because to them air seems to be a vacuum). Now, when air is moved, it causes hearing, provided that it is a simple continuum such that a sound can be formed in it. For if sound is to be produced, it requires a singleness and continuity in the air; therefore, no sound occurs unless the sounding thing that is struck be smooth. A thing is smooth if no part of it juts out from the rest. A smooth surface, then, is a simple unity, upon which the air too exists in a single and uniform way. It is otherwise if the body in question has a rough surface; and since air is unstable, that is, easily broken up, it follows that neither will the air be a continuous unity, and therefore that no sound will be formed in it.
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452. Sic igitur patet quod illud est sonativum, id est faciens sonum, quod movet aerem unum existentem continuitate usque ad auditum. Sic ergo patet quod illi qui dicunt quod vacuum est proprium sensui auditus, dicunt quid recte, quia esse proprium auditus competit aeri qui vacuum esse creditur, non autem dicunt recte quantum ad hoc quod plenum aere dicunt esse vacuum.
452. It is clear, then, that nothing sounds, that is, produces sound, unless it sets in motion the air continuously as far as the organ of hearing. It follows that those who said that the vacuum was adapted to the sense of hearing said something to the point; for to be adapted to hearing is a property of air, which they called a vacuum. But they were not right in using the term vacuum for that which is really full of air.
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453. Deinde cum dicit: auditus autem etc., determinat de immutatione auditus a sono quantum ad ipsum organum sensus auditus. Et circa hoc tria facit:
453. Then, when he says, hearing is naturally conjoined (420a4), he concludes about the impression made on hearing by sound, insofar as the organ of hearing is concerned. And he does three things here.
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primo ostendit quod aer appropriatur organo auditus;
First, he shows that air is adapted to the organ of hearing:
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secundo ostendit qualis sit aer qui competit organo auditus, ibi: per se quidem igitur etc.;
second, he shows what sort of air this is, at of itself air (420a7; [454]);
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tertio ostendit quomodo auditus impeditur vel non impeditur ex impedimento organi, ibi: propter hoc autem et in aqua etc.
third, he shows how hearing may or may not be obstructed by an impediment in the organ, at on this account therefore (420a11; [455]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod auditus connaturalis est aeri, ita quod, sicut humidum aqueum convenit instrumento visus, ita aer convenit instrumento auditus; et hoc ideo quia, si attribuatur aer instrumento auditus, sequetur quod eadem passio soni erit in aere exterius moto et in aere qui movetur interius et est instrumentum auditus. Et ideo animal non audit in qualibet parte sui corporis, neque aer sonans penetrat quamcumque partem corporis animati, quia animatum non habet in qualibet parte sui aerem, ut quaelibet pars eius possit esse movenda a sono, sicut etiam animatum habet humidum aqueum non ubique, sed in quadam parte determinata, scilicet in pupilla.
First, then, he says that hearing is naturally conjoined with air; air is adapted to the organ of hearing as watery fluid to the organ of sight. And this is because, since air pertains to the organ of hearing, the same effect of sound can exist in the moving outside the organ and in the air inside that is moved as the instrument of hearing. This is why the animal does not hear in every part of the body, nor the sounding air produce a sound in, or penetrate, every part of the ensouled body. The ensouled body has not air in each of its parts so that any part might be set in motion by sound; in the same way as the ensouled body has a certain watery liquid only in one special part (the pupil of the eye), not everywhere.
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454. Deinde cum dicit: per se quidem igitur etc., ostendit qualis sit aer qui appropriatur instrumento auditus. Et dicit quod, cum omne quod habet ex se sonum sit aliquid natum resistere percutienti, manifestum est quod aer per se non habet sonum, eo quod de se non est natum resistere percutienti, sed facillime cedit. Prohibetur autem cessio eius sive defluxus ab aliquo corpore solido et ideo cum hoc accidit motus aeris reddit sonum; dictum est enim quod ad generationem soni oportet fieri percussionem duorum solidorum ad invicem et ad aera.
454. Then, at of itself air (420a7), he shows what sort of air is instrumental in hearing. And he says that everything that sounds is by nature resistant to percussion. Obviously, air is not of itself a sounding material, for it does not by nature resist what strikes it, but rather yields easily. However, its yielding or diffusion can be prevented by a solid body, and then the movement of the air gives out a sound. For we have seen that, for the production of sound, two solids must strike against each other and against air.1
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Sed aer qui est connaturalis auditui est aedificatus, id est firmiter dispositus, in auribus cum hac proprietate quod sit immobilis, ad hoc quod animal possit sentire per certitudinem omnes differentias motus. Sicut enim humidum aqueum quod est in pupilla caret omni colore ut possit cognoscere omnes differentias colorum, ita oportet quod aer qui est infra tympanum auris careat omni motu ad hoc quod possit discernere omnes differentias sonorum.
But the air connatural to hearing is built into, or firmly set in, the ears, so as to be immobile, in order that the animal may sense distinctly every variety of motion. For as the watery matter in the pupil lacks every color in order to know all differences of color, so must the air in the tympanum of the ear lack every motion so that it may discern all the differences of sound.
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455. Deinde cum dicit: propter hoc autem et in aqua etc., ostendit quomodo impeditur auditus ex impedimento organi. Ponit autem duo impedimenta secundum duo quae dixit necessaria ad organum auditus,
455. Next, at on this account (420a11), he shows how hearing may be hindered by an impediment in the organ. He states two impediments, according to the two conditions which, he says, are necessary to the organ of hearing:
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quorum primum est quod sit ibi aer,
of these, the first is air;
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secundum est quod ille aer sit immobilis.
and the second, that this air be still.
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Primum ergo impedimentum est ex hoc quod ipse aer corrumpitur. Et ideo dicit quod ex praedictis manifestum est quod in aqua audimus, ita dumtaxat quod aqua non ingrediatur ad ipsum connaturalem aerem, quem dixit aedificatum esse in auribus, sed neque etiam in aurem ingrediatur, quod possibile est propter reflexiones quae prohibent introitum aquae in aurem.
The first impediment, then, will be any elimination of the air. It follows therefore that we hear in water, provided that the water does not penetrate to that inner air which, as he says, is built into the ear. But in fact water does not penetrate into the ear at all; this is impossible because of its convolutions, which prevent its entry.
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456. Si tamen hoc accidat, quod aqua scilicet ingrediatur ad ipsum connaturalem aerem, non audit animal, propter corruptionem aeris, qui est necessarius ad audiendum, sicut etiam, si corrumpatur humidum pupillae ex immissione alicuius extranei, impeditur visio; et non solum ex corruptione aeris impeditur auditus, sed etiam si miringa, id est pellis circumdans aerem, aut aliqua pars coniuncta laboret, id est infirmetur, sicut etiam impeditur visio si impediatur pellis pupillae, quae contegit humorem aqueum pupillae.
456. But if water should happen to penetrate to this inner air, the animal would cease to hear, because the air needed for hearing would then have been eliminated; just as sight is prevented if the aqueous matter of the pupil is destroyed by the entry of some alien body. And not only is hearing impeded by the loss of this air, but also if the eardrum, that is, the skin enclosing this air, or some adjoining portion, is ailing; just as in the case of sight, when the cornea of the pupil, which holds the aqueous matter of the eye, is injured.
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457. Quidam autem libri habent quod in aqua non audimus, quod est contra id quod dictum est quod audimus in aere et in aqua, et contra id quod Aristoteles dicit in libro De historia animalium quod animalia audiunt in aqua: licet enim aqua non ingrediatur ad interiorem aerem, tamen potest eum commovere et sic imprimere in ipsum speciem soni.
457. Now, certain books maintain that we do not hear in water.1 This is contrary to what has been said here (that we hear both in air and in water)2 and also to what the Philosopher says in the History of Animals, that animals hear in water.3 For though the water does not penetrate to the interior air, it can set it in motion, and thus impress upon it some sort of sound.
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458. Secundum autem impedimentum auditus ponit ibi: sed signum est etc., et hoc impedimentum provenit ex hoc quod aer qui est in auribus non est immobilis. Unde dicit quod signum per quod potest discerni utrum aliquis sit boni auditus vel non, est quod semper audiat tinnitum et sonum in auribus, sicut audit cum apponitur cornu ad aurem, propter motum aeris in cornu; cum enim hoc accidit, homo non est boni auditus, quia aer in auribus sic audientis tinnitum semper movetur quodam proprio motu; sed ab instrumento auditus sonus debet esse extraneus et non proprius, sicut instrumentum visus recipit extraneum colorem et non habet proprium, si autem haberet proprium, impediretur visio; et similiter, si aer qui est in auribus habeat proprium motum et sonum, impeditur auditus. Quia igitur auditus fit per aerem, propter hoc aliqui credentes aerem esse vacuum, dicunt nos audire vacuo et sonanti, quia scilicet pars qua audimus habet aerem determinatum, id est immobilem et distinctum ab aere exteriori.
458. He states the second impediment to hearing at a test of good hearing (420a15). This impediment would come from a lack of stability in the air of the inner ear: so he says that a sign of one’s good or bad hearing is whether one continually hears a ringing in the ear, like the sound heard when a horn is held up to the ear; which sound is due to the movement of air in the horn. One in this condition has poor hearing, for the air in his ears is perpetually moving by a motion of its own. Each sound ought to be external to the organ of hearing, not intrinsic, just as the organ of sight should receive each color from without, having none of its own. If it has any of its own, sight is impeded. And in the same way, if the air in the ear has a motion and sound of its own, hearing is impeded. And it is for this reason, that hearing thus comes about through air, that they (thinking that air is a vacuum) say that we hear through a resounding vacuum; and indeed the organ by which we hear has its own constrained air, immobile and distinct from the air outside.
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459. Deinde cum dicit: utrum autem sonat etc., movet quaestionem circa generationem soni, utrum scilicet causa activa soni sit verberans aut quod verberatur. Et determinat quod utrumque est causa, sed alio et alio modo; quia enim sonus consequitur motum, necesse est quod, sicut aliquid est causa activa motus, ita aliquid est causa soni; generatur autem sonus ex motu, quo aliquid percutiens propter resistentiam percussi resilit, eo scilicet modo quo saltantia, idest resilientia, moventur a lenibus et duris, cum aliquis ea truserit, idest fortiter impulerit; manifestum est igitur quod et primum percutiens movet et iterum percussum, inquantum facit resilire percutiens, et sic utrumque est causa activa motus.
459. Then, at is it that which strikes (420a19), he raises a question about the generation of sound: whether the active cause of sound is the thing that strikes or that which is struck. He concludes that both are causes, though in different ways; because as sound follows upon motion, whatever is an efficient cause of motion is so also of sound. Sound originates in the movement with which a thing striking rebounds from the resistance of the thing struck; just as bouncing or resilient bodies rebound from hard, smooth objects when one flings them violently against the latter. Clearly, then, the thing striking is a cause of movement, and also the object struck, inasmuch as it makes the latter rebound: and thus both are efficient causes of the motion.
DeAn.L17
460. Et quia in generatione soni necesse est quod fiat quaedam resilitio ex resistentia percussi, non omne quod verberatur et verberat sonat, sicut dictum est prius, puta si obiiciatur acus acui non fit sonus; sed ad hoc quod generetur sonus, oportet illud quod percutitur esse regulare, idest esse sic dispositum, ut aer subito dissiliat, ex eius resistentia, et moveatur, ut ex tali motu generetur sonus.
460. And because, to produce sound, it is necessary that there be a rebound from a struck thing’s resistance, consequently not everything that strikes or is struck gives out sound, as was said to begin with: for example, if one needle is struck against another.1 To produce sound, what is struck must be smooth, that is, so disposed that the air be set in motion instantaneously when the thing struck resists. Such a movement will cause sound.
DeAn.L17
461. Deinde cum dicit: differentiae autem sonantium etc., determinat de differentiis sonorum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
461. Then, at differences (420a26), he examines the differences of sounds.
DeAn.L17
primo ostendit quomodo percipiantur;
First, he shows how these differences are perceived;
DeAn.L17
secundo quomodo nominentur, ibi: haec autem dicuntur.
and second, how they are named, at these terms are used (420a29; [462]).
DeAn.L17
Dicit ergo primo quod diversae res sonantes faciunt diversos sonos, sed huiusmodi differentiae sonantium secundum quod nata sunt facere diversos sonos non manifestantur quando est sonus in potentia, sed solum quando est sonus in actu: sicut enim non videntur colores sine lumine, sic non percipiuntur acutum et grave in rebus sonativis, nisi fiat sonus in actu.
He says first, then, that different things produce different sounds. But these differences in sonorous things’ capacity to produce sound are only manifested in act, not in potency. For just as colors are not seen without light, so high or low tones are not perceived until a sound is actual.
DeAn.L17
462. Deinde cum dicit: haec autem dicuntur etc., ostendit quomodo nominentur differentiae sonorum. Et circa hoc quatuor facit.
462. Then, where he says, these terms are used (420a29), he shows how differences of sound are named. And he does four things here.
DeAn.L17
Primo ostendit unde sumantur nomina sonorum. Et dicit quod sumuntur secundum metaphoram a qualitatibus tangibilibus. Manifestum est enim quod acutum et grave inter qualitates tangibiles computantur.
First, he states whence the names of sounds are taken, saying that they are used by metaphor from tangible qualities; for obviously high and low1 are counted among the tangible qualities.
DeAn.L17
463. Secundo ibi: acutum enim etc., ponit rationes nominum. Et dicit quod sonus acutus est qui multum movet sensum auditus in pauco tempore; gravis autem sonus est qui multo tempore parum movet.
463. Second, at a high note moves (420a30), he explains these names, saying that a sound is high which moves the sense of hearing much in a brief space of time; while a low sound is one which moves it little in a longer time.
DeAn.L17
464. Tertio ibi: neque tamen velox etc., quia praedictae rationes videntur esse velocis et tardi (velox enim est quod in parvo tempore multum movetur, tardum autem quod in multo tempore parum), ostendit qualiter se habeat acutum et grave in sonis ad velox et tardum in motibus. Et dicit quod velox non est idem quod acutum nec grave in sonis idem quod tardum, sicut nec sonus, cuius differentiae sunt grave et acutum, est idem quod motus, cuius differentiae sunt velox et tardum; sed, sicut motus est causa soni, ita velocitas motus est causa soni acuti et tarditas motus est causa soni gravis. Sed hoc intelligendum est cum sonus causatur ab uno motu; cum autem causatur ex pluribus motibus, frequentia motuum est causa acuti soni et raritas est causa gravis, ut dicit Boetius in Musica; unde et chorda magis tensa acutius sonat, quia ex una percussione frequentius movetur.
464. Third, at but this does not mean (420a31), since the above descriptions would seem to apply to the fast and the slow (the fast being that which in a short time is moved much, the slow that which in much time is moved little), he shows how the high and low in sounds are related to the fast and slow in motions. The fast, he says, is not the same as the high-toned, nor the low-toned the same as the slow, any more than sound, differentiated by the high and the low, is the same as movement, differentiated by the fast and the slow. But as movement causes sound, so speed of movement is the cause of high tones, and slowness of movement is the cause of low. But this is understood in the case of sounds caused by a single movement; when sound is produced by many movements, it is frequency of movements that causes the high tones, while their slowness causes the low, as Boethius says in the De musica.1 Hence the more taut a string is, the higher is its note, because at a single stroke it vibrates more frequently.
DeAn.L17
465. Quarto ibi: et videntur similitudinem etc., assimilat differentias sonorum qualitatibus tangibilibus a quibus nominantur. Et dicit quod ea quae sunt circa tactum habent similitudinem cum acuto et hebeti in sonis, quia acutus sonus quasi pungit auditum, eo quod in pauco tempore movet ipsum, hebes autem quasi pellit, quia in multo tempore movet; unde unum eorum accidit cum velocitate motus, aliud cum tarditate. Ultimo concludit quod sic determinatum sit de sono.
465. Fourth, at so there seems to be (420b1), he likens differences of sounds to the tangible qualities from which they are named, observing that there seems to be an analogy with the tangible, as sharp and blunt in sounds; for the high note pierces the hearing, in that one moves in a brief time; while the low tone thuds on it, because it takes a greater time to disturb it. So the one comes about rapidly, the other slowly. Concluding, he says that he has sufficiently examined sound.
DeAn.L17
L. 18 (B.8, 420b5–421a6)Voice
Quibusnam conveniat vocem habere, et quomodo formetur
Voice
DeAn.L18
Vox autem sonus quidam est animati. Inanimatorum enim nullum vocat, sed secundum similitudinem dicitur vocare, ut tybia et lira et quaecumque alia inanimatorum extensionem habent et melos et locutionem; assimilantur enim, quia et vox haec habet.
Voice is the sound of an ensouled thing. No non-souled being voices anything, although, by analogy, the flute and the lyre are said to voice; and so, too, other non-souled objects which sound with duration, harmony, and speech. The resemblance arises from voice also having these qualities.
DeAn.L18
Multa autem animalium vocem non habent, ut quae sunt sine sanguine et sanguinem habentium pisces. Et hoc rationabiliter, si quidem aeris motus sonus est. Sed qui dicuntur vocare, ut qui in Acheleo, sonant branchiis aut quodam altero huiusmodi.
Many animals have no voice, such as the bloodless, and, among those with blood, fish. And this is reasonable if, in fact, sound is a movement. But the fish that are said to have voice, such as those in the Achelous, make a sound through their gills or in some other such way.
DeAn.L18
Vox autem sonus animalis est, et non qualibet parte. Sed quoniam omne sonat verberante aliquo et ad aliquid et in aliquo, hoc autem est aer, rationabiliter utique vocabunt haec sola quaecumque suscipiunt aerem.
Voice is a sound made by an animal, but not from any part of its frame. Since all things sound by something striking another in a medium, which is air, it is reasonable that those only will have voice which inhale air.
DeAn.L18
Iam enim respirato utitur natura in duo opera, sicut lingua in gustum et locutionem, quorum quidem gustus necessarium est, unde et pluribus inest, interpretatio autem est propter bene esse, sic et spiritu et ad calorem interiorem tanquam necessarium (causa autem in alteris dicta est) et ad vocem ut sit quod bene.
For nature employs air inhaled for two activities; as it employs the tongue for both taste and speech, of which one, taste, is a necessity (whence it exists in more species), while the other, expression of meaning, is for well-being. So with breath: it regulates interior heat—and this is necessary to existence (the reason for this will be stated elsewhere); and it also serves voice, which is for well-being.
DeAn.L18
Organum autem respirationis vocalis arteria est; cuius autem causa haec pars est, pulmo: hac enim parte plus habent calorem pedibus gradientia aliis. Indiget autem respiratione et circa cor locus primus, unde necesse est interius respirante ingredi aerem.
Now, the organ of respiration is the windpipe, and the purpose of this organ is to serve the lungs. Quadrupeds have more heat in this part than in others, so respiration is needed, and first of all around the heart. Hence it is necessary that air enter when an animal draws breath.
DeAn.L18
Quare percussio respirati aeris ab anima quae est in his partibus ad vocalem arteriam, vox est.
Hence, a striking by the soul (in these parts) upon air inhaled through the windpipe is voice.
DeAn.L18
Non enim omnis animalis sonus est vox, sicut diximus: est enim et lingua sonare et sicut tussientes. Sed oportet animatum esse verberans et cum imaginatione aliqua; significativus enim quidam sonus est vox, et non respirati aeris sicut tussis, sed isto verberat eum qui est in arteria ad ipsam.
For not every animal sound is a voice, as we have said; for there is clicking the tongue and the noise made by coughing. There is needed an ensouled being to utter the sound and some accompanying imagination. For voice is a significant sound, not merely that of air respired, as coughing is; rather, with it the air in the windpipe is struck against the windpipe.
DeAn.L18
Signum autem est non posse vocare respirantem neque exspirantem, sed detinentem: movet enim isto retinens. Manifestum autem et quia pisces sine voce: non enim habent guttur; hanc autem partem non habent, quia non recipiunt aerem neque respirant, sed qui dicunt sic, peccant. Propter quam igitur causam, altera ratio est.
A sign of this is that we cannot produce voice while inhaling air nor while exhaling it, but only while retaining it. For what holds the air also sets it in motion. It is thus clear why fish have no voice; for they have no windpipe. They lack this member because they do not inhale air or breathe. Those who say otherwise are mistaken. The cause of this, however, is another question.
DeAn.L18
466. Vox autem sonus quidam etc. Postquam determinavit philosophus de sono, hic determinat de voce, quae est species soni. Et dividitur in partes duas:
466. Voice is the sound of a living thing (420b5). After discussing sound, the Philosopher deals with voice, which is a kind of sound. His treatment divides into two parts.
DeAn.L18
in prima praemittit quaedam quae sunt necessaria ad definitionem vocis;
First, he gives certain facts preliminary to a definition of voice.
DeAn.L18
in secunda definit vocem, ibi: quare percussio.
Second, he defines voice, at hence, a striking (420b27; [476]).
DeAn.L18
Circa primum duo facit:
In the former part, he does two things.
DeAn.L18
primo ostendit quorum sit habere vocem;
First, he points out what things have voice;
DeAn.L18
secundo quid sit proprium organum vocis, ibi: vox autem sonus.
and second, what is the particular organ of voice, at voice is a sound (420b13; [472]).
DeAn.L18
Circa primum duo facit:
The former division subdivides:
DeAn.L18
primo ostendit quod habere vocem est animatorum;
first, he shows that only ensouled beings have voice;
DeAn.L18
secundo ostendit quorum animatorum, ibi: multa autem animalium etc.
second, he states which of these have it, at many animals (420b9; [470]).
DeAn.L18
Dicit ergo primo quod vox est quaedam species soni: est enim sonus animati, non autem quilibet, sed quidam, ut post patebit.
First, then, he observes that voice is a kind of sound—the sound made by an ensouled being; and not of any, but of certain ones, as will be explained later.
DeAn.L18
467. Nullum autem inanimatum habet vocem, et si aliquando aliquod eorum dicatur habere vocem, hoc est secundum similitudinem, sicut tibia et lyra et huiusmodi instrumenta dicuntur habere vocem: habent enim tria eorum soni in quibus assimilantur voci.
467. No non-souled thing has a voice. And if sometimes such are said to have voice, this is by analogy, as when we speak of the voice of flutes and lyres and such instruments. There are three respects in which the sounds made by these resemble voice.
DeAn.L18
Quorum primum est extensio: manifestum est enim quod in corporibus inanimatis ex simplici percussione causatur sonus, unde, cum percussio statim transeat, sonus etiam cito transit et non continuatur; sed vox causatur ex percussione aeris ad vocalem arteriam, ut post dicetur, quae quidem percussio continuatur secundum appetitum animae et ideo vox extendi potest et continuari; illa igitur instrumenta de quibus dictum est ex hoc ipso quod habent quamdam continuitatem in suo sono habent similitudinem vocis.
The first is duration; for while the sound of non-souled bodies is produced by a simple percussion, which is no sooner ended than the sound quickly passes away without continuing, voice, on the contrary, is produced by a percussion of air in the windpipe (as will be explained later), which can be maintained by the soul according to its desire, and so be prolonged and continued. The instruments mentioned above have, then, some likeness to voice in the relatively prolonged character of their sounds.
DeAn.L18
468. Secundum autem in quo assimilantur voci est melos, idest consonantia: sonus enim corporis inanimati, cum ex simplici percussione proveniat, uniformis est, non habens in se diversitatem gravis et acuti, unde in eo non est consonantia, quae ex eorum proportione causatur; sed vox diversificatur secundum grave et acutum eo quod percussio quae causat vocem diversimode fit secundum appetitum animalis vocem emittentis; unde, cum in praedictis instrumentis distinctio sit gravis et acuti in sono, eorum sonus est cum quadam melodia ad similitudinem vocis.
468. The second respect in which they resemble voice is harmony. The sound of an inanimate body, since it arises from simple percussion, is uniform, with no variations of high and low pitch, and therefore, without harmony, which is caused by their proportion. But voice is diversified according to the high and the low insofar as the percussion that causes the voice arises in different ways according to the appetite of the animal emitting it. And something like this distinction of high and low occurs in the melodies produced by the said instruments, according to a likeness with voice.
DeAn.L18
469. Tertium in quo sonus horum instrumentorum habet similitudinem vocis est locutio, idest interpretatio sonorum ad similitudinem locutionis:
469. The third resemblance their sounds bear to voice consists in a certain likeness to speech, that is, there is a conveyance of meaning in the sounds, by likeness to speech.
DeAn.L18
manifestum est enim quod humana locutio non est continua (unde et in libro Praedicamentorum oratio quae in voce profertur ponitur species quantitatis discretae; distinguitur enim oratio per dictiones et dictiones per syllabas), et hoc accidit propter diversas percussiones aeris ab anima; et similiter sonus praedictorum instrumentorum distinguitur secundum diversas percussiones, utpote diversarum chordarum vel diversorum flatuum aut aliquorum huiusmodi.
For it is clear that human speech is not a continuous sound; hence, in the Categories, it is counted as a species of discrete quantity.1 Speech is divided into words, and words into syllables—and this, by the separate percussions made of air due to the soul. In a similar way, the said instruments, by means of different strokes or breathings, etc., produce different chords or different blowings or things of this sort.
DeAn.L18
470. Deinde cum dicit: multa autem animalium etc., ostendit quorum animatorum sit habere vocem. Et dicit quod etiam multa animalia non habent vocem, sicut omnino carentia sanguine (quorum quatuor sunt genera, ut dicitur in libro De animalibus, scilicet malachie, quae habent mollem carnem exterius, ut pulpi, sepiae; et animalia mollis testae, ut cancri; et animalia durae testae, ut ostreae; et animalia anulosi corporis, ut apes formicae et alia huiusmodi; nullum enim horum habet sanguinem neque vocem),
470. Next, at many animals (420b9), he points out which ensouled beings have voice. Even many animals, he says, have none. These are the bloodless animals, of which there are the four genera enumerated in History of Animals, namely: the soft-bodied, having soft flesh externally, such as cuttlefish and mollusks; those with a soft shell, like crabs; those with a hard shell, like oysters; and those with ring-like bodies, like bees, ants, and so forth.1 None of these have either blood or voice.
DeAn.L18
471. et similiter etiam aliqua animalium habentium sanguinem non habent vocem, scilicet pisces. Et hoc rationabiliter accidit, quia sonus est quidam motus aeris, ut supra dictum est, huiusmodi autem animalia non respirant aerem et ideo non habent proprium sonum qui sit vox. Sed quod aliqui pisces dicuntur habere vocem, sicut qui sunt in Acheloo, quod est proprium nomen loci, non habent proprie vocem, sed faciunt quemdam sonum cum branchiis quibus expellunt aquam et attrahunt, aut aliquo alio huiusmodi instrumento motus.
471. And even some animals with blood lack voice, namely fish. This is reasonable if, in fact, sound is a movement of the air, as we have seen, for animals of this sort do not breathe air and therefore produce no sound which could be their voice.1 But some fish are said to have a voice, like those in the Achelous (the name of a river), but this is not true properly speaking; they merely make a sound with the gills, by which they expel and draw in water, or in some other moving instrument.
DeAn.L18
472. Deinde cum dicit: vox autem sonus animalis etc., ostendit quod sit organum vocis. Et circa hoc tria facit:
472. Then, at voice is a sound made by an animal (420b13), he points out the organ of voice. And regarding this, he does three things.
DeAn.L18
primo ostendit quod idem est organum vocis et respirationis;
First, he shows that the organ of voice is the same as that of respiration.
DeAn.L18
secundo ostendit ad quid respiratio sit utilis, ibi: iam enim respiratio etc.;
Second, he explains the use of respiration, at for nature employs (420b16; [473]).
DeAn.L18
tertio ostendit quid sit organum respirationis, ibi: organum autem etc.
Third, he shows what is the organ of respiration, at now, the organ (420b22; [474]).
DeAn.L18
Dicit ergo primo quod, quamvis vox sit sonus animalis, non tamen cuiuscumque partis animalis sonus est vox. Sed, quia ad generationem soni requiritur quod sit percussio alicuius ad aliquid et in aliquo, quod est aer, rationabile est quod illa sola animata vocem habeant quae aerem respirando suscipiunt, et ex eadem parte unde respirant.
He observes first, then, that, while voice is an animal sound, not any sound of any part of the animal is voice. And since the production of sound requires the striking of something by something in something (that is, in the air), it is reasonable why only those animals have a voice that inhale air by respiration and that they have voice in the part through which they breathe.
DeAn.L18
473. Deinde cum dicit: iam enim respirato etc., dicit quod natura utitur aere respirato ad duo opera, sicut utitur lingua ad gustum et ad locutionem, quorum duorum gustus est necessarius (est enim distinctivus alimenti convenientis, quo conservatur animal) et propter hoc pluribus animalibus inest, sed interpretatio quae fit per locutionem est ad bene esse; et similiter aere respirato utitur natura ad mitigationem caloris naturalis, quod est necessarium (et huius causa dicta est in libro De respiratione et expiratione), et utitur aere respirato ad formationem vocis, quod est ad bene esse.
473. Then, at for nature employs air (420b16), he says that nature employs air inhaled for two activities, as it uses the tongue for both tasting and speech. Of which two last activities, tasting is a necessity, since by it the animal discerns the food that maintains it in mere existence (which is why taste is found in more animals). But the expression of meaning by means of speech is for the sake of well-being. In a similar way, nature uses inhaled air both for the mitigation of natural heat, which is simply necessary (the reason for this is given in the book, On Respiration and Expiration1) and also for the production of voice, which is for well-being.
DeAn.L18
474. Deinde cum dicit: organum autem respirationis etc., ostendit quid sit organum respirationis. Et dicit quod organum respirationis est vocalis arteria, quae est ordinata ad pulmonem ut ei deserviat per aeris attractionem; aer autem necesse est ut recipiatur in pulmone, quia in hac parte animalia gressiva plus habent de calore quam in aliis partibus; pulmo enim coniungitur cordi in quo est principium caloris naturalis et ideo locus qui est circa cor indiget respiratione ad refrigerium naturalis caloris
474. Next, at now, the organ of respiration (420b22), he says that this organ is the windpipe, the function of which is to serve the lungs by enabling them to draw in air. It is necessary that air be taken into the lungs because animals that can move about have more heat in this part than in others. The lungs are connected with the heart, wherein lies the principle of the natural warmth of the body; consequently, the parts around the heart need to be cooled, and this is done by respiration.
DeAn.L18
475. (dicit autem locus primus vel quia est primus circa cor pulmo, utpote qui ei vicinatur, vel quia cor est prima pars animalis, et quantum ad generationem et quantum ad causalitatem motus), et propter hoc necesse est quod aer ingrediatur ad pulmonem ad refrigerium naturalis caloris.
475. These parts, he says, need to be cooled first, either because the lungs come first after the heart as being next to it or because the heart comes first among the animal’s parts, both in origin and in the process of causing movement, which is why it is necessary that air enter the lungs to cool the heart’s natural heat.
DeAn.L18
Vel hoc quod dicit quod in hac parte animalia pedibus gradientia habent plus calorem aliis, intelligendum est: aliis animalibus; manifestum est enim quod animalia habentia sanguinem habent plus de calore naturali carentibus sanguine, et in genere habentium sanguinem pisces minus habent de calore naturali; et propter hoc animalia carentia sanguine et pisces non respirant, ut supra dictum est.
Or, indeed, the comparison may be between this part in animals that move upon feet, and the same parts in other animals. For it is clear that animals with blood have more natural heat than those without blood; and among those with blood, fishes have the least, which is why neither bloodless animals nor fishes breathe, as has been said.
DeAn.L18
476. Deinde cum dicit: quare percussio etc., ex praemissis definitionem vocis concludit. Et circa hoc duo facit:
476. Then, at hence, a striking (420b27), he draws from the foregoing observations a definition of voice:
DeAn.L18
primo ponit definitionem;
first, stating the definition;
DeAn.L18
secundo manifestat eam, ibi: non enim omnis etc.
and second, at for not every animal (420b29; [477]), explaining it.
DeAn.L18
Dicit ergo primo quod, quia vox est sonus animati et ex illa parte qua aerem respirat, omnis autem sonus est ex aliqua percussione aeris, sequitur quod vox sit percussio respirati aeris ad arteriam vocalem; quae quidem percussio fit ab anima quae est in his partibus, idest principaliter in corde. Quamvis enim anima sit in toto corpore ut est forma animalis, tamen vis eius motiva est principaliter in corde. Datur autem haec definitio per causam: non enim vox est percussio, sed sonus ex percussione causatus.
First, then, he says that, since voice is the sound of the ensouled being proceeding from the part through which it breathes air (for every sound implies some striking on air), it follows that voice is a striking upon air inhaled through the windpipe; which striking is caused by the soul in these parts, but especially the heart. For while the soul exists everywhere in the body of an animal (as its form), yet its motive power is principally in the heart. Note that he is defining through the cause of the thing defined, for voice is not in fact the striking itself but a sound made by striking.
DeAn.L18
477. Deinde cum dicit: non enim omnis animalis etc., manifestat praedictam definitionem.
477. Next, at for not every animal sound (420b29), he explains the definition with regard to his assertions.
DeAn.L18
Et primo quantum ad hoc quod dixerat quod percussio vocalis est ab anima;
And first, that the vocal impact comes from the soul;
DeAn.L18
secundo quantum ad hoc quod dixerat quod est aeris respirati, ibi: signum autem etc.
second, that its material is breath, at a sign of this (421a1; [478]).
DeAn.L18
Posuerat enim tria in definitione vocis: percutiens, scilicet animam, percussum, scilicet aerem respiratum, et id ad quod fit percussio, scilicet vocalem arteriam; quorum tertium supra manifestaverat, unde restabat quod duo prima manifestaret.
Three factors have entered into his definition of voice: that which strikes, that is, the soul; that which is struck, that is, the air respired; and that in which the striking occurs, that is, the windpipe. The third of these he has explained above; so there remain the first two.
DeAn.L18
Dicit ergo primo quod, sicut supra dictum est, non omnis sonus animalis est vox: contingit enim linguam facere aliquos sonos qui tamen non sunt voces, sicut et tussientes sonum faciunt, qui tamen non est vox. Oportet enim, ad hoc quod sit vox, quod verberans aerem sit aliquid animatum et cum imaginatione aliqua intendente ad aliquid significandum; oportet enim quod vox sit sonus quidam significativus, vel naturaliter vel ad placitum, et propter hoc dictum est quod huiusmodi percussio est ab anima: operationes enim animales dicuntur quae ex imaginatione procedunt; et sic patet quod vox non est percussio respirati aeris, sicut accidit in tussi, sed id cui principaliter attribuitur causa vocis est anima quae utitur isto aere, scilicet respirato, ad verberandum aerem qui est in arteria ad ipsam arteriam; aer ergo non est principale in vocis formatione, sed anima quae utitur aere ut instrumento ad vocem formandam.
He observes, then, first, that, as he has said, not every animal sound is a voice. Sometimes the tongue makes sounds that are not voice. And, coughing is not voice. For voice to be produced is needed a living being to utter the sound, and also, accompanying this, imagination must be present, which is meant to signify something. For voice is a significant sound—significant either by nature or conventionally. Hence the statement that the striking proceeds from the soul; for activities proceeding from imagination can be said to be from the soul. It is clear, then, that voice is not merely that of air respired, such as occurs in coughing, and that the principal cause of the production of voice is the soul, using this air, that is, air inhaled, to force against the windpipe the air within it. It is not air, then, that is the principal factor in the formation of voice, but the soul, which uses air as its instrument.
DeAn.L18
478. Deinde cum dicit: signum autem etc., manifestat aliam partem definitionis, scilicet quod vox sit percussio aeris respirati. Et dicit quod signum huius est duplex. Unum, quia animal non potest formare vocem neque dum attrahit aerem respirando neque dum expellit expirando, sed dum retinet aerem, quia dum retinet, isto aere retento causat motum ad formationem vocis. Aliud signum est, quia pisces non habent vocem: non enim habent guttur, idest vocalem arteriam, et hanc partem non habent, quia non recipiunt aerem neque respirant, sed qui dicunt hoc quod pisces respirant, peccant. Quare autem pisces non respirant, alia ratio est; pertinet enim ad scientiam in qua considerantur particularia accidentia animalium.
478. Then, at a sign of this (421a1), he explains the other element in his definition, namely, that voice is the striking of the air that is breathed, saying that there are two signs of this. One sign is that no animal can produce voice either while inhaling air or while expelling it, but only while it retains air; because while it retains air, this air, being retained, causes a movement that results in voice. Another sign is that fishes have no voice; for they have no windpipe or vocal passage, and this because they do not inhale air or breathe. Those who say that fishes breathe are mistaken; but why they do not breathe is another question, belonging to the science which deals with the particular attributes of animals.
DeAn.L18
L. 19 (B.9, 421a7–421b8)The object of smell
Quam difficile sit de odorabili tractare dicit, eius naturam et differentias ex saporum differentiis patefacit, concludens quo modo odorativum sit odorabilis perceptivus, et oppositi
The object of smell
DeAn.L19
De odore autem et olfactibili minus bene determinabile est dictis: non enim manifestum est quale quid sit odor, sicut sonus aut visibile, utrum lumen. Causa autem est quia sensum hunc non habemus certum, sed peiorem multis animalibus. Prave enim odorat homo et nihil odorat odorabilium sine laetitia et tristitia, sicut non existente certo eo quod sentimus. Rationabile autem sic et fortes oculis colores sentire et non permanifestas ipsis esse differentias colorum, nisi terrentium et non terrentium, sic autem et odores hominum genus.
It is not so easy to come to conclusions about odor and the odorous as about the sense-objects already discussed. What odor is, is less obvious than what sound is, or the visible or light, the reason being that our sense of smell lacks precision; it is inferior to that of many animals. For man smells but feebly, discerning nothing odorous save with some special pleasure or pain, as though our organ for the perception of smells were indeterminate. It is arguable indeed that, as hard-eyed animals sense colors, yet such that delicate differences are not sharply defined to them, except as these cause fear or not, so are smells to the human race.
DeAn.L19
Videtur enim et analogiam habere ad gustum et similiter species humorum cum his que sunt odoris. Sed certiorem habemus gustum propter id quod ipse quidam tactus est, hunc autem habet homo sensum certissimum; in aliis enim deficit ab animalibus multis, secundum autem tactum differenter certificat. Unde et prudentissimum animalium est; signum autem et in genere hominum secundum sensum hunc ingeniosos esse et non ingeniosos, secundum alium autem nullum. Duri enim carne, inepti mente, molles autem carne bene apti.
For it seems that, while smell has an analogy with taste, and the species of flavors with things that belong to odors, yet we have a sharper perception of taste, because this is a sort of touch—the sense which man possesses to the highest degree of precision. Whereas in the other senses he is inferior to many animals, by touch he can discriminate with exactness far beyond the rest of the animal world. Hence man is the most prudent of the animals. A sign of this is that within the human race, men are naturally clever or not in accordance with this sense, and in accordance with no other. For coarse-fleshed people are mentally inert, while the tender-fleshed are well suited.
DeAn.L19
Est autem sicut humor hic quidem dulcis, ille vero amarus, sic et odores sunt, sed alia quidem habent proportionaliter odorem et humorem, dico autem dulcem odorem et dulcem humorem, alia vero contrarium. Similiter autem et acer et austerus et acutus et pinguis est odor. Sed sicut diximus, propter id quod non multum permanifesti sunt odores sicut humores, ab his acceperunt nomina secundum consuetudinem rerum; dulcis quidem enim a croco et melle, acer autem a thimo et a similibus; eodem autem modo et in aliis.
As some flavors are sweet and some bitter, so with odors. But some things are analogously endowed with flavor and odor, I mean, have a sweet taste and sweet smell. In others, however, these qualities are contrary. Likewise, odors are pungent, harsh, sharp or oily: but since, as we have said, odors are not very distinct, whereas flavors are, they take their names from the latter, according to resemblance. For the sweet comes from saffron and honey: the pungent from thyme; and so in other cases.
DeAn.L19
Adhuc autem sicut auditus et unusquisque sensuum, hic quidem audibilis et non audibilis, ille vero visibilis et non visibilis, et olfactus odorabilis et non odorabilis. Non odorabile autem aliud quidem secundum id quod omnino impossibile est habere odorem, aliud vero parvum habens et pravum. Similiter autem et non gustabile dicitur.
Furthermore, as hearing (and the same obtains in each of the senses) bears on the audible and the inaudible (and sight on the visible and the invisible), so smell is of the odorous and the odorless. The odorless is either that which simply cannot have a smell at all or that which has smell but a small and feeble one. The same can be said of the tasteless.
DeAn.L19
479. De odore autem et olfactibili etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de visibili et audibili, nunc tertio determinat de odorabili. Et dividitur in partes duas:
479. It is not so easy to come to conclusions (421a7). Having dealt with the visible and the audible, the Philosopher now considers smell and its object. His treatment has two parts.
DeAn.L19
in prima ostendit de odorabili quid sit;
In the first, he examines this object as such;
DeAn.L19
in secunda determinat de odorabili secundum quod immutat sensum olfactus, ibi: est autem olfactus etc.
in the second, at smelling also (421b8; [491]), the manner in which it affects the sense.
DeAn.L19
Circa primum duo facit:
About the first, he does two things:
DeAn.L19
primo determinat de odorabili secundum se;
first, he determines the object as it is in itself;
DeAn.L19
secundo de non odorabili secundum quod odoratu percipitur, ibi: adhuc autem etc.
second, he turns, at furthermore, as hearing (421b3; [490]), to consider a certain odorless object which falls within the range of smell.
DeAn.L19
Circa primum duo facit:
The former consideration again subdivides:
DeAn.L19
primo ostendit difficultatem determinandi de odorabili;
first, he shows the difficulty of reaching determinate conclusions about smell;
DeAn.L19
in secunda ostendit quomodo accipiatur cognitio odorabilium, ibi: videtur enim et analogiam etc.
second, he explains how we can come to know about the odorous, at for it seems that smell has an analogy (421a16; [481]).
DeAn.L19
Dicit ergo primo quod non ita bene determinari potest de odore et odorabili sicut de praedictis sensibilibus, scilicet audibili et visibili, quia non manifestum est nobis quid sit odor, sicut quid est sonus aut quid est visibile, utrum lumen, vel aliquid huiusmodi.
First, then, he observes that it is not so easy to reach conclusions about smell and its object as it was about the sense-objects discussed hitherto, the audible and the visible. For what odor is, is less obvious to us than what sound is, or the visible, or light, or other things of that sort.
DeAn.L19
480. Et huius causam assignat, quia sensum odoratus non habemus bonum qui perspicaciter et per certitudinem cognoscat suum obiectum, sed habemus eum peiorem multis animalibus.
480. The reason, he says, is that our sense of smell is not so strong that we can distinctly and unerringly discern its object, for this sense is inferior in us than in many other animals.
DeAn.L19
Cuius ratio est quia, cum instrumentum sensus debeat esse proportionatum suo sensibili, sicut odor causatur ex calido et sicco ita ad bonitatem instrumenti odoratus requiritur victoria calidi et sicci; homo autem habet cerebrum, in cuius vicino positum est instrumentum olfactus, maius omnibus aliis animalibus secundum proportionem sui corporis, ut philosophus dicit in libro De animalibus, unde, cum cerebrum sit frigidum et humidum secundum se consideratum, impeditur in homine bonitas olfactus.
The reason is that, as the sense organ ought to be proportioned to its sense-object, and as smell is caused by the warm and dry, therefore a good organ of smell will be predominantly a warm, dry organ. Now, the brain of man, close to which lies the organ of smell, is, as the Philosopher says in Parts of Animals, larger in proportion to his body than that of any other animal;1 and since the brain itself is cold and moist, the human sense of smell is proportionately impeded by it.
DeAn.L19
Et propter hoc prave odorat homo et nihil odorabilium percipit nisi quod est secundum aliquam excellentiam inducens delectationem aut contrarium, quod contingit propter sensum qui non est perspicax ad certitudinaliter discernendum de suo obiecto. Unde rationabile est quod hominum genus sic se habeat ad percipiendos odores sicut se habent animalia habentia duros oculos, ut locustae et quidam pisces, ad percipiendos colores, quos propter debilitatem visus ex ineptitudine organi non percipiunt nisi in quadam excellentia, prout eis ingeritur aliquis terror vel eius contrarium.
Man smells but feebly—discerning nothing unless it is strongly odorous and causes pleasure or its contrary; and this is because his sense of smell is lacking in a keen and exact discernment of its object. Hence, one may reasonably opine that the human race stands with respect to perceiving odors in the same way as hard-eyed animals, such as locusts and certain types of fish, stand with respect to perceiving colors; for these animals, on account of their weak vision and ill-suited organs, see only what is very obviously visible and as such is apt to frighten them or the contrary.
DeAn.L19
481. Deinde cum dicit: videtur enim et analogiam etc., ostendit quomodo innotescant nobis differentiae odorum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
481. Then, at for it seems that (421a16), he shows how differences of odor are made known to us. And about this, he does two things.
DeAn.L19
primo ostendit quod differentiae odorum nobis innotescunt per comparationem ad differentias saporum;
First, he shows how differences of odor are brought home to us by comparison with differences of taste.
DeAn.L19
secundo ostendit quomodo respondeant differentiae odorum differentiis saporum, ibi: est autem sicut humor etc.
Second, he shows how differences of odor correspond to differences of taste, at as some flavors (421a26; [487]).
DeAn.L19
Dicit ergo primo quod sensus olfactus in homine videtur habere quamdam convenientiam et proportionem ad gustum et similiter species humorum, idest saporum, ad species odoris. Unumquodque autem ignotum cognoscitur per id quod est magis manifestum; unde, cum species saporum sint nobis maxime manifestae, species odorum, quae sunt nobis ignotae et habent affinitatem ad species saporum, sub eorum similitudine a nobis cognoscuntur.
First, then, he remarks that the sense of smell in man seems to have some relation and proportion to taste; and the species of flavor (that is, savor) to those of odor. Now, things unknown become known through what is more evident. Since, then, the varieties of flavor are clearly evident to us, those of smell, which are not so, but which have a certain affinity to those of flavor, are made known to us through their likeness to them.
DeAn.L19
482. Species autem saporum sunt nobis manifestae quia sensum gustus habet homo certiorem [quam sensum olfactus] quam alia animalia, quia gustus est tactus quidam, tactum autem habet homo certissimum aliis animalibus, licet in aliis sensibus deficiat a quibusdam animalibus: sunt enim quaedam animalia quae melius vident, audiunt et olfaciunt quam homo, sed homo secundum tactum multum differt in certitudine cognitionis ab aliis animalibus.
482. Now, the varieties of flavor are evident to us because man has a sharper sense of taste than other animals, taste being a sort of touch, which man possesses to the highest degree of precision, compared to the other animals; whereas in the other senses, man falls short of some animals. For certain animals see and hear and smell better than man, but the touch of man is very different in the precision of its knowledge from that of other animals.
DeAn.L19
483. Unde, quia homo habet optimum tactum, sequitur quod sit prudentissimum omnium aliorum animalium, quia et in genere hominum ex sensu tactus accipimus quod aliqui sunt ingeniosi et aliqui non ingeniosi, et non secundum aliquem alium sensum. Qui enim habent duram carnem et per consequens habent malum tactum, sunt inepti secundum mentem, qui vero sunt molles carne et per consequens boni tactus, sunt bene apti mente. Unde etiam alia animalia habent duriores carnes quam homo.
483. Hence this pre-eminence of touch in man is the reason why man is the most prudent of the animals; moreover, within the human race it is due to their sense of touch that we take it that some are naturally clever and some not, and not due to any other sense. For those whose flesh is tough and consequently whose sense of touch is poor are inert in their mind, while those who are tender-fleshed and, in consequence, with a fine sense of touch, are mentally well suited. This too is why the other animals have flesh of a coarser texture than man.
DeAn.L19
484. Sed videtur quod aptitudo mentis magis respondeat bonitati visus quam bonitati tactus, quia visus est spiritualior sensus et plures differentias rerum demonstrat. Sed dicendum est quod duplici ex causa bonitas mentis respondet bonitati tactus.
484. Yet it might seem that aptitude of the mind corresponds to excellence of sight more than that of touch, for sight is the more spiritual sense and reveals better the differences between things. Still, there are two reasons for maintaining that excellence of mind is proportionate to fineness of touch.
DeAn.L19
Prima ratio est quia tactus est fundamentum aliorum sensuum omnium: manifestum est enim quod organum tactus diffunditur per totum corpus et quodlibet instrumentum sensus est etiam instrumentum tactus et id ex quo aliquid dicitur sensitivum est sensus tactus; unde ex hoc quod aliquid habet meliorem tactum, sequitur quod simpliciter habet meliorem sensitivam naturam et per consequens quod sit melioris intellectus, nam bonitas sensus est dispositio ad bonitatem intellectus. Ex hoc autem quod aliquid habet meliorem visum vel auditum, non sequitur quod sit melius sensitivum simpliciter, sed solum secundum quid.
In the first place, touch is the foundation of all the other senses; for obviously the organ of touch pervades the whole body, so that the organ of each of the other senses is also an organ of touch, and the sense of touch by itself constitutes a being as sensitive. Therefore, the finer one’s sense of touch, the better, simply speaking, is one’s sensitive nature as a whole, and consequently the better one’s intellectual capacity. For a fine sensitivity is a disposition to a fine intellect. But an exceptionally good hearing or sight does not imply that the sensitivity as a whole is finer, but only that it is so in one respect.
DeAn.L19
485. Alia ratio est quia bonitas tactus sequitur bonitatem complexionis sive temperantiam: cum enim instrumentum tactus non possit esse denudatum a genere tangibilium qualitatum eo quod est ex elementis compositum, oportet quod sit in potentia ad extrema saltem per hoc quod est medium inter ea; ad bonam autem complexionem corporis sequitur nobilitas animae, quia omnis forma est proportionata suae materiae. Unde sequitur quod qui sunt boni tactus sunt nobilioris animae et perspicacioris mentis.
485. The other reason is that a fine touch is an effect of a good bodily constitution or temperament. For as the organ of touch is itself necessarily endowed with tangible qualities (being composed of the elements), it needs to be in a condition of potency to extremes of the tangible, at least by itself constituting a mean between them. Now, nobility of soul follows upon a good bodily constitution, because forms are proportionate to their matter. It follows that those whose touch is good are so much the nobler in nature and have a more penetrating mind.
DeAn.L19
486. Quaeritur autem iterum, cum tactus sit certissimus sensuum, quare species odorum denominantur magis a speciebus saporum quam a qualitatibus tangibilibus?
486. Another question that arises is why the species of odor are named from the species of taste more than from the tactile qualities, if touch is the most exact of the senses.
DeAn.L19
Et dicendum quod odor et sapor causantur ex determinata commixtione qualitatum elementarium, et ideo species odoris magis correspondent speciebus saporis quam simplicibus qualitatibus tangibilibus.
I answer that both odor and flavor are caused by a determinate combination of elemental qualities; consequently, the species of odor corresponds to the species of flavor more than to the simple tangible qualities.
DeAn.L19.co
487. Deinde cum dicit: est autem sicut etc., ostendit quomodo species odoris respondent speciebus saporis. Et dicit quod, sicut humor, id est sapor, quidam est dulcis et quidam amarus, sic etiam et odores distinguuntur, sed sciendum est quod quaedam habent proportionaliter odorem et saporem, scilicet dulcem odorem et dulcem saporem, quaedam vero per contrarium, id est suavem saporem et non suavem odorem vel e converso.
487. Next, when he says, as some flavors are sweet (421a26), he explains how the kinds of odor correspond to flavors or taste, observing that as we distinguish these as sweet and bitter, so do we also with odors. But it must be known that some things are analogously endowed with flavor and odor, that is to say, a sweet taste and a sweet smell, others, on the contrary, have an agreeable flavor but a disagreeable smell, or the converse.
DeAn.L19
488. Cuius ratio est quia sapor consistit in humido aqueo aliqualiter digesto, odor autem consistit in sicco aereo aliqualiter contemperato; contingit autem quandoque utramque substantiam, scilicet subtilem aeream et aqueam grossiorem, secundum debitam proportionem commixtam esse, et sic est suavitas odoris et saporis; si vero sit debita proportio in uno et non in altero, erit in uno suavitas et in alia non. Et sicut dictum est de dulci et amaro quae sunt extrema in saporibus quae transferuntur ad odores, ita etiam et acetosum et austerum, id est stipticum aut ponticum, et acutum et pingue odoribus attribuitur.
488. The reason for this is that flavor consists in an aqueous liquid that is somewhat digested, and odor consists in dry air that is modified in some way. Now, it sometimes happens that both substances, a fine air and a heavier liquid, are each combined in an appropriate proportion; and then both odor and flavor are pleasing. But if this appropriate proportion is found in one and not in the other, then the one will be pleasing but the other not so. And what has been said of sweet and bitter, the extremities in flavor that are transferred to odors, can be applied also to the sour and the pungent, that is, astringent or harsh, and the acidic and the oily: these flavor-qualities can be attributed to the odorous.
DeAn.L19
489. Sed, licet non semper in omnibus correspondeant odores saporibus, tamen, sicut diximus, propter hoc quod odores non sunt multum manifesti sicut sapores, acceperunt nomina odores a saporibus secundum consuetudinem rerum, quia ut in pluribus odores respondent saporibus: dulcis enim odor et sapor est a croco et melle, acer autem a thymo et a similibus; et similiter de aliis odoribus et saporibus.
489. But although odors and flavors do not always and in all respects correspond, nevertheless since, as we have said, odors are not very distinct and evident, whereas flavors are, odors take their names from their resemblance to flavors; for on the whole, odors correspond to flavors. For a sweet smell and taste come from saffron and honey, a pungent smell and taste come from thyme; and so with other flavors and odors.
DeAn.L19
490. Deinde cum dicit: adhuc autem sicut etc., ostendit quomodo etiam non odorabilia odoratu percipiuntur. Et dicit quod, sicut auditus est audibilis et non audibilis et visus est visibilis et non visibilis, cum sit eadem potentia cognoscitiva oppositorum et privatio non cognoscatur nisi per habitum, similiter olfactus est odorabilis et non odorabilis.
490. Then, at furthermore, as hearing (421b3), he shows how odorless things are perceptible to smell. As hearing, he says, is of the audible and inaudible, and sight of the visible and invisible (because opposites are known by one and the same power, and a lack is known only by means of what is lacking), so smell is of the odorous and the odorless.
DeAn.L19
Sed non odorabile dicitur dupliciter: aut quod omnino non potest habere odorem, sicut corpora simplicia, aut quod habet parum de odore aut malum odorem. Et similiter intelligendum est de gustabili et non gustabili.
But there are two senses of the term odorless: it can mean that which simply cannot have a smell at all, such as all simple bodies, or what has a little or a faint smell. And the same is true of the tasteable and the tasteless.
DeAn.L19
L. 20 (B.9, 421b8–422a7)How smell occurs
Quo pacto immutetur sensus olfactus ab odorabili, non modo in hominibus, sed in aliis animalibus; et de ipsius instrumenti odoratus compositione
How smell occurs
DeAn.L20
Est autem olfactus per medium, ut aerem aut aquam: et namque aquatica videntur odorem sentire (similiter autem et quae cum sanguine et sine sanguine), sicut et quae in aere; et enim horum quaedam a longe occurunt ad alimentum, quae ab odore moventur.
Smelling also takes place through a medium, which is either air or water. For aquatic animals seem also to sense odors, both those with blood and those without, like animals that live in the air; for some of them traverse long distances for their food, being drawn to it by smell.
DeAn.L20
Unde et dubium videtur si omnia quidem similiter odorent? Homo autem respirans; non respirans autem sed exspirans aut retinens spiritum, non odorat neque a longe neque a prope, neque si in nasum intus ponatur. Et hoc quidem in ipso positum quo sentitur, insensibile esse, omnibus commune est, sed sine respiratione non sentire, proprium est hominum, manifestum autem est temptantibus. Quare sanguinem non habentia, quoniam non respirant, alterum utique quendam sensum habent praeter eos qui dicti sunt.
So there seems to be a difficulty whether all smell in the same way, for man smells by inhaling; when exhaling or holding his breath, he smells nothing, neither from a distance nor close at hand, not even if the object is placed inside the nose. (That a thing should be imperceptible when placed on the very organ of sensation is indeed common to all, but to be unable to sense without breathing is peculiar to man. This is evident to those who make the experiment.) Since, then, bloodless animals do not breathe, they would seem to have some other sense besides those which have been spoken of.
DeAn.L20
Sed impossibile est, si quidem odorem sentiunt: odorabilis enim sensus et mali odoramenti et boni odoramenti olfactus est. Amplius autem et corrumpi videntur a fortibus odoribus ex quibus homo corrumpitur, ut sulphurae et huiusmodi; olfactum quidem igitur habere necessarium est, sed non respirantia.
But this is impossible, if it is odor they sense. For the sense for odors, good odors or bad, is smell. Furthermore, they seem to be overcome by the same strong odors as man, such as sulfur and the like. Therefore, even if they do not breathe, they must smell.
DeAn.L20
Videtur autem hominibus differre hoc sensitivum ad ea quae aliorum animalium, sicut oculi ad ea quae durorum oculorum sunt. Haec quidem enim habent phragma et sicut velamen palpebras, quas aliquis non movens neque retrahens non videt; forcia autem oculis nihil huiusmodi habent, sed mox vident quae fiunt in lucido. Sic igitur et odorativum sensitivum aliis quidem sine operculo est sicut oculus, aliis vero aerem recipientibus habere cooperimentum quod respirantibus discooperitur, ampliatis venis et poris. Et propter hoc respirantia non odorant in aqua: necessarium enim est odorem pati respirantia, hoc autem facere in humido impossibile est.
Now, this sense seems to differ as between man and other animals, as human eyes differ from the hard eyes of some animals. The former have a covering or protection, the eyelids, and unless these are moved or withdrawn, one does not see. Hard-eyed animals have nothing like this; they see at once whatever happens to be present in the transparent medium. In the same way, then, the organ of smell is in some animals like an eye with no covering; in others, which inhale air, it has a covering that is withdrawn when they respire and so distend the veins and pores. And for this reason, animals that breathe do not smell in water. For they must respire if they are to be acted upon by odor, and they cannot do this in a liquid.
DeAn.L20
Est autem odor sicci, sicut humor humidi; odorativum autem sensitivum potentia huiusmodi est.
Odor is of dry things as savor is of liquid; and the sense organ of smell is such in potency.
DeAn.L20
491. Est autem olfactus etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de odorabili, hic determinat de immutatione odoratus ab ipso.
491. Smelling also takes place (421b8). After concluding about the odorous as such, the Philosopher now deals with its impact on the sense;
DeAn.L20
Et primo quantum ad medium;
and first, as to the medium;
DeAn.L20
secundo quantum ad organum sensus, ibi: est autem odor etc.
second, at odor is of dry things (422a6; [500]), as to the organ of the sense of smell.
DeAn.L20
Circa primum duo facit:
As to the former point, he does two things.
DeAn.L20
primo ostendit quid sit medium in sensu odoratus;
First, he indicates the medium of the organ of smell;
DeAn.L20
secundo movet quamdam quaestionem circa determinata, ibi: unde dubium.
second, at so there seems to be a difficulty (412b13; [496]), he raises a question about the conclusion reached.
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Dicit ergo primo quod sensus olfactus immutatur ab odorabili per medium, scilicet aerem aut aquam; et quidem quod aer sit medium in olfactu, manifeste apparet, quia nos per aerem odoramus; unde oportuit manifestari aquam esse medium in olfactu, quod quidem manifestatur per hoc quod animalia aquatica odorem sentiunt (non solum illa quae habent sanguinem, sed etiam illa quae sanguine carent), sicut et animalia quae vivunt in aere; quod quidem apparet ex hoc quod quaedam eorum de longinquo veniunt ad alimentum, quod non posset esse nisi inquantum provocantur odore, sicut patet de vulturibus, qui ex multis diaetis dicuntur ad cadaver concurrere. Quomodo autem odor ad tam remotum spatium diffundatur, dubitatio habet.
First, then, he observes that the organ of smell is affected by the odorous through a medium, that is, air or water. That air is a medium of smell is obvious, for we smell through the air. So we need only prove that water is such a medium. This he shows by the fact that aquatic animals, and not only the sanguineous but the non-sanguineous also, sense odors, like animals that live in the air. A sign of this is that some of them travel a long distance for their food, which could not happen unless they were attracted by smell—like vultures, which are said to come long journeys to carrion. But just how smell is diffused to such a distance in space is not certain.
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492. Sciendum itaque est quosdam posuisse omnem sensum quodam perfici tactu: dicebant enim oportere quod sensus et sensibile se tangant ad hoc quod sentiatur. Aliter tamen aestimabant hoc accidere in visu et in aliis sensibus: dicebant enim quod ex visu egrediebantur lineae visuales progredientes usque ad rem visam et ex earum contactu visibile videbatur; in aliis autem sensibus dicebant [oportere] quod e converso sensibile perveniebat ad sensum. Et quidem in tactu et gustu hoc manifeste videtur accidere, nam tangibile et gustabile quodam contactu sentiuntur; in auditu etiam idem videtur esse, nam aer motus usque ad auditum pertingit; circa olfactum etiam idem esse dicebant, ponebant enim quod a corpore odorabili resolvebatur quaedam fumalis evaporatio quae est subiectum odoris et perveniebat usque ad sensum olfactus.
492. An opinion which some have maintained should be noted here, that all sensation is consummated in a kind of touch: a contact, they said, must occur of sense and sense-object, but not in the same way in sight as in the other senses. For they said that certain visual lines come forth from sight, proceeding all the way to the thing seen, and that when these touch, the visible object is seen; whereas in the case of the other senses, a reverse process takes place, and the sense-object comes to the power. This, they said, is particularly obvious in tasting and touching, which sense by a sort of contact, and would seem to occur also in hearing, which implies a movement of air to the ear, and also in smelling; for they maintained that odors are conveyed to the sense of smell by a kind of fume that bodies give off by evaporation.
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493. Causa enim huius diversitatis haec esse videtur, quia antiqui non ponebant nec percipiebant aliquid de immutatione spirituali medii, sed solum de immutatione naturali, in aliis autem sensibus apparet quaedam immutatio naturalis in medio, sed non in visu. Manifestum est enim quod soni et odores per ventos deferuntur vel impediuntur, colores autem nullo modo; manifestum est etiam quod contrariorum colorum species per eamdem partem aeris deferuntur ad visum, sicut cum unus videt album et alius nigrum simul existentes et eodem aere utentes pro medio, quod quidem in olfactu non accidit, nam contrarii odores etiam in medio se impedire inveniuntur. Et ideo, non percipientes immutationem qua medium immutatur a visibili, posuerunt quod visus deferretur usque ad rem visam, sed, quia percipiebant immutationem qua medium immutabatur ab aliis sensibilibus, credebant quod alia sensibilia deferrentur ad sensum.
493. The cause of their drawing this distinction between two modes of sensation seems to have been that these early thinkers did not assert or notice anything of the spiritual modification of a medium but only of a natural modification. Now, a natural modification of the medium is evident in all the other senses, but not in sight: for, obviously, odors and sounds are carried or impeded by the wind, which is certainly not the case with color. Also, the species of contrary colors are carried through one and the same section of air to sight, as when one man sees white and another black at the same time and through the medium of the same air, which is not the case with odor, for contrary odors impede one another, even in the medium. Therefore, not perceiving the way the visible object modifies the medium, these philosophers maintained that sight was conveyed to the thing seen, whereas, observing in other sensations the changes that took place in the medium, they believed that in these cases, the sense-objects came to the sense.
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494. Sed manifestum est quod hoc in olfactu non potest accidere. Cum enim odor cadaveris usque ad quinquaginta milliaria vel amplius a vulturibus sentiatur, impossibile esset quod aliqua corporalis evaporatio cadaveris usque ad tantum spatium diffunderetur, praesertim cum sensibile immutet medium undique secundum eamdem distantiam nisi impediatur; non autem sufficeret ad occupandum tantum spatium, etiam si totum cadaver resolveretur in fumalem evaporationem, cum sit certus terminus rarefactionis ad quem corpus naturale pervenire potest, qui est raritas ignis, et praecipue cum per huiusmodi odorem cadaver non appareat sensibiliter immutatum.
494. But it is clear that this cannot occur in smelling. When vultures smell carrion at a distance of fifty miles or more, this cannot be due to any bodily evaporation from the carrion being diffused over so great a space. This is the more evident if we consider that a sense-object affects its medium for the same distance in all directions, if not impeded. There would not be enough of the object to occupy so much space, even if the whole corpse were to evaporate; for there is a fixed limit of expansion for all natural bodies—the rarity of fire—and in any case, the corpse can smell and be smelt in this way without being sensibly altered.
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495. Et ideo dicendum est quod ab odorabili resolvi quidem potest fumalis evaporatio, quae tamen non pertingit usque ad terminum unde odor percipitur, sed immutatur medium spiritualiter ultra quam praedicta evaporatio pertingere possit. Quod autem spiritualis immutatio fit a visibili magis quam ab aliis sensibilibus, ratio est quia visibiles qualitates insunt corruptibilibus corporibus secundum quod communicant cum corporibus incorruptibilibus, unde habent esse formalius et nobilius quam reliqua sensibilia, quae sunt propria corruptibilium corporum.
495. We are, therefore, compelled to say that whatever gaseous vapor may come from an odorous substance, it does not reach as far as the point where the odor is perceived but that beyond the point reached by this vapor the substance affects the medium spiritually. That such spiritual modification of the medium is effected by the object of sight more than by that of the other senses is due to the fact that, by their visible qualities, corruptible bodies share something with incorruptible bodies; hence, they have a more formal and noble being than do the other sense-objects, which are proper to corruptible bodies.
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496. Deinde cum dicit: unde et dubium videtur etc., movet dubitationem circa praedicta.
496. Then, at so there seems to be a difficulty (421b13), he states a problem suggested by what he has been saying, bringing forward objections:
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Et primo obiicit ad unam partem;
first, from one side;
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secundo ad aliam, ibi: sed impossibile est etc.;
second, at but this is impossible (421b21; [497]), from the other;
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tertio solvit, ibi: videtur autem hominibus etc.
until third, at now, this sense seems (421b26; [499]), he provides a solution.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, cum etiam aquatica odorent, dubium videtur, si omnia similiter odorent, quasi habentia sensum eumdem. Et videtur quod non, quia homo odorat respirando dum attrahit aerem; quando autem non respirat attrahendo aerem, sed expirat emittendo ipsum, aut retinet spiritum, non odorat neque a longe neque a prope, etiam si poneretur odorabile intus in naso. Sed hoc quod sensibile positum supra sensum non sentiatur, commune est omnibus animalibus; sed quod odor non sentiatur sine respiratione, hoc est proprium hominibus, et hoc manifestum est si quis temptare voluerit. Unde, cum animalia non habentia sanguinem non respirent, videtur quod habeant alterum sensum praeter olfactum et alios sensus qui dicti sunt in homine.
First, then, he observes that there seems to be a difficulty whether all animals smell in the same way, as having the same sense of smell. It would seem not indeed, for man smells when he breathes in air, but when he is exhaling air or holding his breath, he smells nothing, neither from a distance nor close to the object, even if the latter is put into his nose. Now, that the object is imperceptible if it is placed right against the sense organ is of course common to all the senses in all animals; but that odors are imperceptible without breathing is peculiar to man, as is evident. And as bloodless animals do not breathe, it would seem to follow that they had some sense other than smell and the other senses which have been spoken of in man.
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497. Deinde cum dicit: sed impossibile est etc., obiicit in contrarium duabus rationibus.
497. Then, at but this is impossible (421b21), he adduces two arguments on the other side.
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Prima ratio est quia sensus distinguuntur secundum sensibilia, unde, cum sensus olfactus sit sensus odorabilis, scilicet boni odoramenti et mali odoramenti, et hoc communiter sentiatur tam ab homine quam ab animalibus non respirantibus, sequitur quod idem sensus olfactus sit in homine et in illis.
First, the senses are distinguished according to their objects; and since smell is the sense of odors, whether good or bad, and these are sensed both by the breathing and by the non-breathing animals, it follows that the sense of smell in man and these animals is the same.
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498. Alia ratio est quia eiusdem sensus sunt eadem corruptiva, non enim visus patitur aliquid a sonis neque auditus a coloribus; sed sensus animalium non respirantium videntur corrumpi a gravibus odoribus et excellentibus ex quibus sensus hominis corrumpitur, scilicet ab asphalto, quod est quaedam confectio ex succis herbarum, et a sulphure et huiusmodi; ergo illa animalia habent sensum olfactus sicut et homo, licet non respirent.
498. Second, the same things are destructive of the same senses: sight does not suffer from sounds nor hearing from colors. But the non-breathing animals seem to be overcome in their senses by the same strong and oppressive odors as are grievous to man, for example, from bitumen (a compound of the juice of herbs), sulfur and the like. Hence, other animals, even if they do not breathe, have a sense of smell like man.
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499. Deinde cum dicit: videtur autem hominibus etc., solvit quaestionem, quia ista diversitas in modo respirandi non est ex diversitate sensus, sed ex diversa dispositione organi. Organum enim olfactus in homine differt ab organis aliorum animalium, sicut oculi hominum differunt ab oculis duris quorumdam animalium.
499. Next, at now, this sense seems to differ (421b26), he proposes his solution: this diversity in the mode of breathing is due, he says, not to a difference in the senses, but to different constitutions of the organ, the organ of smell in man being different from that in other animals, as a man’s eyes differ from the hard eyes of certain beasts.
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Oculi enim hominum habent quoddam phragma, id est pannum ad cooperiendum, scilicet palpebras, unde homo non potest videre nisi quodam motu palpebrae retrahantur; quod non accidit in animalibus habentibus duros oculos, sed statim vident ea quorum species fiunt in diaphano. Ita etiam et in aliis animalibus non respirantibus, organum odoratus est sine operculo, sed in animalibus respirantibus habet quoddam operculum quod oportet aperiri, ampliatis poris per respirationem. Et ideo animalia respirantia non odorant in aqua, quia oportet quod patiantur ab odore respirando, quod non potest fieri in aqua.
The human eye has a covering, that is, an envelope for protection, called eyelids, which must be withdrawn before a man can see. This is not the case with hard-eyed animals; they see at once whatever the things whose species come to be in the transparent medium. And so it is with some non-breathing animals; their olfactory organs have no covering, whereas that of animals that breathe is covered over until they distend the veins and pores in the act of respiration. Therefore, the latter animals that breathe do not smell in water, for they must be acted upon by breathing the odor, which cannot happen in water.
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500. Deinde cum dicit: est autem odor sicci etc., determinat de instrumento olfactus. Et dicit quod odor fundatur in sicco, sicut sapor in humido, organum autem odoratus oportet esse in potentia ad odorem et ad siccum, sicut organum visus est in potentia ad colores et ad lucem.
500. Then, at odor is (422a6), he indicates the organ of smell, saying that as the foundation of odor is dryness and that of taste is moisture, the organ of smell must be in potency to odor and dryness, as the organ of sight is to colors and the luminous.
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L. 21 (B.10, 422a8–422b17)Taste: medium, object, organ, and kinds of flavor
Gustabile non percipi per medium extraneum, sed coniunctum, dicit: de ipsius item instrumenti gustas qualitate, et de saporum differentiis agit
Taste: medium, object, organ, and kinds of flavor
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Gustabile autem est quoddam tangibile; et haec est causa quare non sit sensibile per medium extraneum corpus: neque enim tactus. Et corpus in quo est humor, quod gustabile, in humido sicut in materia: hoc autem quoddam tangibile.
The tasteable is a sort of tangible; hence, it is not sensible through an extraneous body as medium, any more than the object of touch. And the body in which is savor, i.e., the tasteable, is in liquid as its material, which is tangible.
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Unde et si in aqua essemus, sentiremus utique appositum dulce, non autem esset tunc nobis sensus per medium, sed in eo quod miscetur humido, sicut in potu. Color autem non sic videtur in eo quod miscetur, neque defluxionibus. Ut quidem igitur medium nihil est; ut autem color visibile, sic gustabile humor est.
Hence, if we were in water, we should taste a sweet thing put into it; not that the sensation would then operate through a medium, but because the savor would be mixed with the water, as in a drink. Color, however, is not thus seen because of any mixture or efflux. There is, then, nothing corresponding to a medium. As color is the visible, so savor is the tasteable.
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Nihil autem facit humoris sensum sine humiditate, sed habet actu aut potentia humiditatem, ut salsum: bene enim liquidum ipsum est et liquefactivum linguae.
It causes no sensation of taste except in liquid; but it must be moist, actually or potentially, as with saliva, which is very liquid and moistens the tongue.
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Sicut autem visus visibilis est et invisibilis; tenebra autem invisibilis est, iudicat autem et ipsam visus, adhuc autem et valde splendidi est, et enim hoc invisibile est, alio autem modo a tenebra; similiter autem et auditus sonique et silentii, quorum aliud audibile, aliud non audibile, et magni soni, sicut visus est splendidi: sicut enim parvus sonus inaudibilis quodam modo, et magnus et violentus.
As sight is of the visible and the invisible (for darkness is invisible, and sight discerns this also, as it does, in addition, the extremely bright, which is also invisible, but in quite another way), the same holds of hearing, which is of sound and silence, one being audible, the other inaudible, and the latter includes excess of sound, which is to hearing as brilliance is to sight, for as a feeble sound is in a way inaudible, so, in another way, is an extremely violent one.
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Invisibile autem aliud quidem omnino dicitur, sicut et in aliis impossibile aliud autem quamvis aptum natum non habet aut prave, sicut non gressibile quod sine pedibus et quod sine gradu dicitur.
“Invisible” indeed can mean either what is absolutely such or as in other cases of the impossible where it is applied both to what lacks what it ought to have by nature, and to what has this defectively—as we say of an animal without feet that it is motionless.
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Sic autem gustus gustabilisque et non gustabilis, hoc autem est parvum aut pravum habens humorem aut corruptivum gustus. Videtur autem principium esse potabile et non potabile: gustus enim quidam ambo, sed hoc quidem ut pravum et corruptivum gustus, illud autem secundum naturam; est autem commune tactus et gustus potabile.
So, in the same way, taste is of the savorable and the non-savorable, the latter being what has either only a faint savor or one altogether destructive of the taste. It would seem that the principle of this is the drinkable or the non-drinkable; and taste is of both, but the latter as either a faint taste or one that destroys the sense, while the former is according to nature. The drinkable is common to taste and touch.
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Quoniam autem humidum quod gustabile, necesse sensitivum ipsius neque humidum esse actu neque impossibile fieri humidum: patitur enim aliquid gustus a gustabili secundum quod gustabile est. Necessarium est ergo humectatum fore quod possibile humectari salvatum, non humidum autem, gustativum sensitivum.
Since what is tasteable is liquid, it is necessary that the sense organ be neither liquid actually nor incapable of becoming so. For taste is acted upon by the savorable thing as such. It is therefore necessary that the sense be moistened, yet in such a way that it keeps its potency thereto, the tasting sense being non-humid.
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Signum autem neque siccam existentem linguam sentire neque multum humidam; hic enim tactus fit primi humidi, sicut cum aliquis qui ante gustavit fortem humorem, gustet alterum, et ut laborantibus amara omnia videntur propter id quod lingua plena huiusmodi humiditate sentiunt.
There is a sign of this in that the tongue cannot sense taste either when it is dry or when it is too moist. In the latter case, contact takes place with the original moisture, as when one who has first tasted a very strong flavor and then tastes another, or as those burdened with fever taste all things as bitter because the tongue is saturated in a liquid of that sort.
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Species autem humorum, sicut et in coloribus, simplices quidem contrariae sunt, sicut dulce et amarum, habitae autem sunt cum hac quidem pingue, cum illa vero sallitum; media autem horum acre et austerum et ponticum et acutum: fere enim hee videntur esse humorum differentiae. Quare gustativum est potentia huiusmodi, gustabile autem est factivum actu huiusmodi.
The species of savor are, like colors, simple contraries: sweet and bitter. Adjoining these, however, are: with the former, the succulent; with the latter, the saline. Then there are the intermediary flavors: pungent, harsh, stringent and piquant. These seem to be about all the varieties of savor that exist; to which taste, as such, therefore, is in potency, the savorable being what reduces it to act.
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501. Gustabile autem etc. Postquam determinavit philosophus de visibili et audibili et olfactibili, hic quarto determinat de gustabili. Et dividitur in partes duas:
501. The tasteable is a sort of tangible (422a8). Having dealt with the visible, the audible and the odorous, the Philosopher now treats of the tasteable, and this, in two parts:
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in prima determinat de gustabili in communi;
first, considering the tasteable in general;
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in secunda de speciebus gustabilis, scilicet saporis, ibi: species autem humorum etc.
and second, at the species of savor (422b10; [514]), its division into flavors.
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Circa primum tria facit:
As to the former point, he does three things.
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primo inquirit an gustabile percipiatur per medium;
First, he asks whether the tasteable is perceived through a medium;
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secundo ostendit quid percipiatur per gustum, quia gustabile et non gustabile, ibi: sicut autem visus etc.
second, he explains what is perceived by taste, that is, the tasteable and the non-tasteable, at as sight (422a20; [509]);
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tertio ostendit quale oporteat esse organum sensus gustus, ibi: quoniam autem humidum etc.;
and third, what is the organ of taste, at since what is tasteable is liquid (422a34; [512]).
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haec enim tria circa alios sensus tractavit, scilicet medium in quo sentitur, illud quod sensu percipitur, et organum sensus.
For he has explained these three points with regard to the other senses, namely the medium, the object sensed, and the sense organ.
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Circa primum tria facit:
As regards the medium, he does three things:
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primo ostendit quod gustabile non percipitur per medium extraneum;
first, he shows that the tasteable is not perceived through any extraneous medium;
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secundo excludit quamdam obiectionem, ibi: unde et si in aqua etc.;
second, at hence, if we were in water (422a11; [505]), he answers an objection;
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tertio ostendit quid requiratur ad hoc quod gustabile actu percipiatur, <ibi: nihil autem facit etc.>.
and third, at it causes no sensation (422a17; [508]), he shows us the necessary condition of actual tasting.
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502. Dicit ergo primo quod gustabile est quoddam tangibile, scilicet quod tactu discernitur; et haec est causa quare non sentitur per medium quod sit corpus extraneum, et dicitur extraneum quia non est pars animalis: sentiuntur enim sensibilia de quibus prius actum est per aerem et aquam, quae non sunt partes animalis; sed tactus non sentit suum obiectum per medium extraneum, sed per medium coniunctum: nam caro est medium in sensu tactus, ut infra patebit; et ideo, cum gustus sit quidam tactus et gustabile sit quoddam tangibile, non percipietur gustabile per medium extraneum.
502. First, then, he says that the tasteable is a sort of tangible (422a8), that is, discerned by touch. That is why it is not sensed through a medium extraneous to the body, that is, which is not part of the animal—differing in this from the sense-objects hitherto treated of, which are sensed through air or water, which are not parts of the animal.1 Touch does not sense through an extraneous medium, but through a conjoined medium, for flesh is the medium in the sense of touch, as we shall see.2 Therefore, as taste is a kind of touch, and the tasteable is a certain tangible, the tasteable is not perceived through any extraneous medium.
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503. Et quod gustabile sit quoddam tangibile, manifestat per hoc quod humor, id est sapor, qui est gustabile, radicatur in humido sicut in materia propria; humidum autem est quoddam tangibile; unde manifestum est quod gustabile est quoddam tangibile.
503. That the tasteable is a sort of tangible he shows thus: savor or flavor is rooted in liquid as its material proper to it; but liquid [or the moist] is a certain tangible. Thus, it is clear that the tasteable is a sort of tangible.
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504. Sed gustus est quidam tactus; videtur ergo quod gustus non debeat distingui contra tactum, cum species non dividatur ex opposito contra genus; et sic sequitur quod non sint quinque sensus, sed quatuor tantum.
504. But if taste is a kind of touch, it would seem that it ought not to be placed in contrast to touch (for no species is opposed to its genus); and if so, then there are not five senses but only four.
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Sed dicendum quod gustus et tactus possunt considerari dupliciter: uno modo quantum ad modum sentiendi, et sic gustus est quidam tactus: nam tangendo suum obiectum percipit; alio modo quantum ad obiectum, et sic oportet dicere quod, sicut se habet obiectum gustus ad obiectum tactus, ita se habet sensus gustus ad sensum tactus; manifestum est autem quod sapor, qui est obiectum gustus, non est aliqua de qualitatibus simplicium corporum ex quibus animal constituitur quae sunt propria obiecta sensus tactus, sed causatur ab eis et fundatur in aliqua earum sicut in materia, scilicet in humido; unde manifestum est quod gustus non est idem quod sensus tactus, sed quodammodo radicatur in eo. Unde et consuevit de gustu distingui quod potest accipi ut gustus, prout est discretivus saporum, et potest accipi ut est tactus quidam, prout discernit qualitates tangibiles, scilicet alimentum cuius sensus est tactus, ut supra dictum est. Unde philosophus dicit in III Ethicorum quod circa delectationes gustus prout accipitur primo modo non est temperantia, sed solum prout est tactus quidam.
But, in truth, touch and taste can be considered in two ways: in one way, with regard to the mode of the sensing, and thus taste is a sort of touch, for it perceives its own object by touching it; and in another way, with regard to the object, and then we have to maintain that as the object of taste is to the object of touch, so the sense of taste is to the sense of touch. But flavor, which is the object of taste, is evidently not one of the qualities of those simple bodies of which the animal is composed, which constitute the specific objects of the sense of touch; yet it is caused by them and is founded in one of them as in its matter, that is, in liquid [or the moist]. Clearly then, taste is not the same as touch, but is somehow founded on touch. So a distinction is commonly drawn between taste, as discriminative of flavors, and taste as a kind of touch discerning certain tangible qualities, namely, those of nourishment, of which touch is the sense, as has been pointed out.1 Hence Aristotle’s remark in the Ethics 3 that temperance does not concern the pleasures of taste understood in the former of these senses, but only insofar as it is a sort of touch.2
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505. Deinde cum dicit: unde et si in aqua etc., excludit quamdam obiectionem: manifestum est enim quod, si aliquod corpus saporosum dissolubile per aquam in aqua ponatur, utpote mel vel aliquid huiusmodi, et nos essemus in aqua quamvis distantes ab illo corpore saporoso, saporem tamen eius sentiremus in aqua; et sic videtur quod gustus suscipiat suum obiectum per aquam, quod est medium extraneum.
505. Next, at hence, if we were in water (422a11), he answers an objection. For it is obvious that if something tasteable and soluble were placed in water (say, honey, or something of that kind) and we were in the water also, we would be aware of the thing’s flavor, even though at a distance from it. Taste, then, apparently senses its object through water, which is an extraneous medium.
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506. Et ideo ad excludendum hanc obiectionem, concludit ex dictis quod, cum gustabile non percipiatur per medium extraneum, sequitur quod si essemus in aqua, sentiremus utique corpus dulce appositum in aqua quamvis distans a nobis, non tamen esset sensus per medium, sed eo quod sapor ille permisceretur humido aqueo, ut accidit in potu. Puta, cum permiscetur aquae vel vino mel aut aliquid huiusmodi: ipsa enim aqua immutatur naturali immutatione a corpore saporoso, unde gustus non percipit saporem corporis distantis ut est talis corporis sapor, sed ut est aquae immutatae a tali corpore;
506. To dispose, then, of this objection, Aristotle, arguing from the principle already stated, that taste does not use an extraneous medium, says that if we were in the water, we should taste a sweet thing in the water at a distance from us, but not that the sensation would operate through a medium; for the flavor would be mixed with the liquid as in a drink (as when honey or the like is mixed with water or wine), and the water itself would be affected by the sweet object. Taste, then, would not perceive the thing’s flavor at a distance except insofar as the water was affected by the thing.
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507. cuius signum est quod gustus non immutaretur ab aqua sic intense sicut natus esset immutari a sapore corporis distantis, eo quod sapor ille debilitatur per admixtionem aquae. Sed color non sic videtur per medium quod corpus coloratum admisceatur medio aut aliquid eius defluat ad visum, ut Democritus ponebat, sed per spiritualem immutationem medii. Unde visus non percipit colorem ut aeris vel ut aquae, sed ut corporis colorati distantis et secundum eamdem mensuram. Si ergo velimus comparare gustum ad visum, nihil est quod sit in gustu sicut id quod est medium in visu; sed sicut color est visibile, id est obiectum visus, sic humor, id est sapor, est gustabile, id est obiectum gustus.
507. A sign of which is that the taste is not so strongly affected by such water as it naturally would be by the flavor of the thing that is at a distance, because the flavor is weakened by mixing with water. But color is not seen through its medium in such a way that the colored body is mixed with the medium or that anything from it flows to the eye, as Democritus supposed; it is seen rather through a spiritual modification of the medium. Hence, sight does not perceive color as color of the air or of water, but as color of a distant colored body, and to the same measure. Comparing, then, taste with sight, we cannot say that the medium of taste is like that of sight, but we can say that just as color is the visible, that is, the object of vision, so flavor is the tasteable, that is, the object of taste.
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508. Deinde cum dicit: nihil autem facit etc., ostendit quid requiratur ad gustum, ex quo medium non requiritur. Et dicit quod nullum saporosum facit sensum sui humoris, id est saporis, sine humiditate: nam sicut color fit actu visibilis per lumen, ita sapor fit actu gustabilis per humidum, et propter hoc oportet quod gustabile vel actu habeat humiditatem aqueam, sicut vinum vel aliquid huiusmodi, aut sit potentia humectabile, sicut illud quod sumitur per modum cibi; et ideo oportet quod sit saliva in ore, quae bene liquida est et liquefactiva linguae, per quam ea quae sumuntur humectantur ut eorum sapor percipi possit.
508. Then, at it causes no sensation of taste (422a17), he shows what is required for taste in the place of a medium, observing that nothing tasteable is tasted without moisture. For as color becomes actually visible through light, so flavor becomes actually tasteable through moisture; for which reason all that is tasteable is either actually liquid, like wine or the like, or is potentially liquid, like things taken as food. Hence, the necessity of saliva in the mouth; being very liquid, it moistens the tongue, so that what is eaten may be wetted and its savor perceived.
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509. Deinde cum dicit: sicut autem visus etc., ostendit quid percipiatur per gustum. Et dicit quod sicut est de visu et auditu, sic est de gustu: visus enim cognoscit visibile et invisibile, ut supra dictum est; invisibile enim est tenebra, de qua visus iudicat, et similiter illud quod est valde splendidum, ut sol, dicitur invisibile, sed alio modo quam tenebra (nam tenebra dicitur invisibilis propter defectum luminis, splendidum autem propter superabundantiam <luminis> corrumpentis sensum); et similiter auditus est audibilis, scilicet soni, et non audibilis, scilicet silentii, quod est privatio soni; et non audibilis est sonus male audibilis, qui vel propter sui excellentiam corrumpit sensum vel propter sui parvitatem non sufficienter sensum immutat. Et sic est in omnibus quae dicuntur secundum potentiam et impotentiam:
509. Next, at as sight is of the visible (422a20), he treats of the object perceived by taste, comparing taste with sight and hearing. For sight perceives both the visible and the invisible, as has been said, the invisible being darkness, which is discerned by sight.1 Also, what is extremely bright, like the sun, is described as invisible, though in quite another way. For darkness is called “invisible” because of a lack of light, but brilliant objects on account of an excess of light which overcomes the sense. The same holds of hearing, that is, of the audible, namely, sound, and of the inaudible, namely, of silence, which is the privation of sound, and also of the inaudible in the sense of what is heard with difficulty, either because of its excessive loudness or because it is too faint to affect the hearing sufficiently. And so it is with all things involving capacity and incapacity.
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510. nam impossibile dicitur in omnibus aut quod non habet quod natum est habere aut quod prave habet, sicut non gressibile dicitur animal et quod penitus caret pedibus et quod est claudum aut debile pedibus. Similiter autem et gustus est gustabilis et non gustabilis; non gustabile autem dicitur quod aut parum habet de sapore aut malum saporem aut nimis violentum ad corrumpendum sensum. Et quia gustabile est humidum aqueum, quod est potabile, et hoc est principium saporis, scilicet humidum aqueum, videtur quod potabile et non potabile sit principium eorum quae gustu percipiuntur: gustus enim percipit ambo, sed unum ut pravum et corruptivum sensus, scilicet non potabile, aliud ut conveniens secundum naturam, scilicet potabile; sicut autem gustabile et non gustabile percipitur a gustu prout gustus est quidam sensus discretus a tactu, ita potabile et non potabile percipitur gustu prout gustus est quidam tactus: nam potabile est commune et tactus et gustus, tactus quidem inquantum est humidum, gustus autem inquantum est humidum saporabile.
510. For one can say of a thing that it is impossible, meaning either that it lacks what it ought to have by nature or that it has it only defectively—as an animal is described as motionless either because it lacks feet or because it is weak on its feet. So in the same way, taste is of the savorable and non-savorable. The latter means either what has little or poor flavor or what is so violently flavored as to overcome the sense. As the tasteable pertains to moisture, that is, the drinkable, and moisture is the basis of savor, it would seem that the drinkable and the non-drinkable are the principle in the process of tasting. For taste perceives both, the one, that is, the non-drinkable, as faint or destructive of taste, but the other, that is, the drinkable, as appropriate according to nature, that is, to taste. Yet while the tasteable is perceived by taste, precisely as a sense distinct from touch, the drinkable and non-drinkable are perceived by taste inasmuch as it is a species of touch. For the drinkable is common to touch and taste: to touch, insofar as it is liquid; to taste, so far as it has savor.
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511. Manifestum est ergo quod delectationes quae sunt in cibis et potibus inquantum sunt esibilia et potabilia pertinent ad gustum inquantum est tactus quidam, ut dicitur in III Ethicorum.
511. Obviously, then, the pleasures afforded by food and drink, insofar as these are things perceptible and drinkable, accompany taste inasmuch as it is a kind of touch, as is said in Ethics 3.1
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512. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem humidum etc., ostendit quale debeat esse instrumentum gustus.
512. Then, at since what is tasteable is liquid (422a34), he examines the organ of taste:
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Et primo ponit veritatem;
first, stating the fact;
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secundo manifestat eam per signum, ibi: signum autem etc.
and second, at there is a sign of this (422b5; [513]), pointing out a sign of its truth.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, quia id quod est gustabile oportet esse humidum et saporosum, necesse est organum gustus neque esse humidum actu secundum seipsum neque esse tale quod non possit fieri humidum, sicut et instrumentum visus est quod non habet colorem, sed est susceptivum coloris; et hoc ideo est quia gustus patitur a gustabili secundum quod est gustabile, sicut quilibet sensus a sensibili.
First, then, he says that because the tasteable is liquid and has savor, it is necessary that the organ of taste be neither actually liquid nor actually flavored. Yet it must be able to become liquid—like the organ of sight, which must be colorless but able to receive color. This is because the taste is acted upon by the savory thing as such, as any other sense by its proper object.
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Unde, cum gustabile inquantum gustabile sit humidum, necesse est quod organum gustus inquantum est iam passum sit humectatum, quod tamen salvatur in sua natura, ut sit gustativum, id est potens gustare, cum possibile est humectari, non tamen est actu humidum.
Since, then, the tasteable as such is liquid, the organ of taste, in the act of receiving the savor, must become moist and yet preserve in its own nature so that it is able to taste, that is, have the power of tasting, when it is not actually, but only potentially, moist.
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513. Deinde cum dicit: signum autem etc., manifestat quod dixerat per signum, dicens quod signum praedictorum est quod neque lingua existens sicca potest sentire neque existens valde humida, quia cum existit valde humida a praecedenti humiditate, fit in ea tactus et sensus praecedentis humidi et non supervenientis, sicut cum aliquis <qui> ante gustaverit aliquem fortem saporem postea gustet alterum, non percipiet ipsum, quia adhuc manet sensus primi humoris in lingua; et similiter laborantibus, id est febricitantibus, omnia videntur esse amara, propter hoc quod sentiunt per linguam plenam humiditate huiusmodi, scilicet cholera amara.
513. Next, at there is a sign (422b5), he observes that a sign of the truth of the foregoing is that the tongue is able to taste nothing when it is either quite dry or extremely liquid; for when it is excessively liquid through the presence and predominance of some liquid already tasted, then for the time being no new moisture can be tasted, as when one who has tasted a strong flavor can taste nothing else, because the sensation of the former flavor remains on the tongue. Similarly, to the burdened or sick, all things taste bitter because their tongues are covered with a feverish or bitter liquid.
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514. Deinde cum dicit: species autem humorum, determinat de speciebus saporum. Et dicit quod, sicut in coloribus simplices colores sunt contrarii, ut album et nigrum, sic in saporibus simplices sunt contrarii, ut dulce et amarum; species autem saporum habitae his, id est immediate consequentes simplices species, sunt pingue, quod sequitur dulce, et salsum, quod sequitur amarum; media autem horum sunt acetosum et austerum et ponticum, quae duo in idem reducuntur, et acutum; ad has autem septem species saporum fere videntur reduci omnes aliae.
514. Then, at the species of savor (422b10), he concludes about the species of taste, observing that, like colors, where simple colors are contrary, such as white and black, so in flavors, the simple are contrary, as the sweet and bitter. Those species of flavor adjoining, that is, those immediately following upon the simple species, are the succulent, following on the sweet, and the salty, following on the bitter. Intermediaries are sour, pungent, harsh, stringent, which last two reduced to the same thing, and piquant. To these seven species of flavor most of the others seem to be reducible.
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515. Considerandum autem est circa has species quod, quamvis sapores causentur a calido et frigido, et humido et sicco, et contraria sunt quae maxime distant, non tamen secundum maximam distantiam calidi et frigidi, humidi et sicci, attenditur contrarietas in speciebus saporum, sed secundum ordinem ad gustum, prout natus est immutari a sapore vel cum horrore vel cum suavitate; unde non est necessarium quod dulce vel amarum sit maxime vel calidum vel frigidum vel humidum vel siccum, sed quod maxime se habeat in tali dispositione per quam comparatur ad sensum gustus. De generatione autem saporum determinatur in libro De sensu et sensato.
515. Note, with regard to these species, that while flavors are caused by the hot and the cold, the moist and the dry, and although contraries connote terms furthest apart, yet the contraries in the species of flavor do not correspond to the maximum differences of hot and cold or of moist and dry, but they are related precisely to the natural capacity of the sense of taste to be affected by savor either to disgust or to delight. There is no need, then, for the sweet or the bitter to be particularly hot or cold or moist or dry, but chiefly that it be in a state that corresponds somehow to the sense of taste. As for the origin of flavors, that is explained in On Sense and What is Sensed.1
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516. Ultimo autem concludit quod gustativum, id est sensus gustus vel organum eius, est in potentia ad saporem et species eius; gustabile autem est quod potest reducere ipsum de potentia in actum.
516. He concludes, finally, that taste (422b15), that is, the sense of taste, or its organ, is in potency to savor and the species of savor, and that the tasteable is what can bring it into act.
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L. 22 (B.11, 422b17–423a21)Touch: its medium and whether it is one sense or many
Inquirit num sensus tactus sit unus, vel plures: et solvit quod plures sunt: quaerit etiam quid sit medium in sensu tactus, num caro vel aliquid aliud proportionale
Touch: its medium and whether it is one sense or many
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De tangibili autem et tactu eadem ratio: si enim tactus non est unus sensus, sed plures, necessarium et tangibilia sensibilia plura esse. Habet autem dubitationem utrum plures sint aut unus, et quid est sensitivum tangibilis, utrum caro et in aliis proportionale, aut non, sed hoc quidem est medium, primum autem sensitivum aliud quiddam est intus.
The same reasoning holds for the tangible and touch. If touch is not one sense, but several, then the tangible sense-objects must necessarily be several. But it is a problem whether it is one sense or several; and what is sensitive of the tangible—whether it is the flesh, or what corresponds to flesh in other animals, or not; and if not, then this flesh would be the medium, while the primary sense organ would be something else within.
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Omnis et enim sensus unius contrarietatis esse videtur, ut visus albi et nigri, auditus gravis et acuti, gustus amati et dulcis; in tangibili autem multae insunt contrarietates, calidum frigidum, humidum siccum, durum molle, et aliorum quaecumque sunt huiusmodi.
For every sense seems to be of a single contrariety, as sight of white and black, hearing of high and low, taste of sweet and bitter. But in the tangible order, there are several contrarieties, hot and cold, dry and wet, hard and soft, and the like.
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Habet autem solutionem quandam ad hanc dubitationem, et quod in aliis sensibus sunt contrarietates plures, ut in voce non solum acumen et gravitas, sed etiam magnitudo et parvitas, et levitas et asperitas vocis, et similia alia. Sunt autem et circa colorem differentiae huiusmodi alterae.
There is a partial solution of this problem: that in other senses also there are several contraries; as in voice, there is not only high and low but also loud and soft, smooth and rough, and other such qualities. There is also a like variety of differences in color.
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Sed quid sit unum subiectum, sicut auditui sonus, sic tactui, non est manifestum.
But it is not clear what is the underlying unity of touch, as sound is of hearing.
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Utrum autem est sensitivum intus, aut non, sed mox caro, nullum videtur esse signum fieri sensum simul cum tacto. Et enim nunc, si aliquis circa carnem extenderit ut imenem faciens, similiter sensum mox tactum insinuat; sed tamen constat quod non est in hoc sensitivum. Si autem et connaturale fuerit, citius utique pertinget sensus.
The fact that sensation arises simultaneously with contact is not a sign of whether the sense organ is interior or is the flesh immediately. For if, as things are, one were to stretch a covering or membrane over the skin, a sensation would still arise immediately on making contact; yet it is obvious that the sense organ was not in this membrane. And if it were connatural, the sensation would reach the sense even sooner.
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Propter quod talis pars corporis videtur sic se habere sicut si circulariter nobis aptus natus esset aer:
Therefore it appears that the relation of this part of the body to the whole is comparable to that which air would have if it formed a natural covering that grew all round our bodies.
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videremur enim uno quodam sentire et sonum et odorem et colorem, et unus quidam sensus esse auditus et visus et olfactus. Nunc autem quoniam determinatum est per quod fiunt motus, manifesta sunt predicta sensitiva altera esse.
For then it would appear that we sensed sound and odor and color through a single common medium, and even that there were but one sense for hearing, seeing, and smelling. Since in fact, however, there exists something determinate through which the motions are produced, it is evident that each of these senses is diverse.
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In tactu autem hoc quidem nunc immanifestum est: ex aere quidem enim aut aqua impossibile est constare animatum corpus, oportet enim firmum esse; relinquitur autem mixtum ex terra et ex his esse, ut vult caro et proportionale; quare necessarium est et corpus esse quod medium tactui adnatum, per quod fiant sensus cum sint plures.
But in the case of touch, this is still far from clear. It is impossible that an ensouled body be constituted from air or water, for it must be solid. It can, then, only be a mixture from earth and the other elements, as flesh (or its counterpart) requires. Wherefore it is necessary that the medium of touch be a body naturally joined to the organism through which its sensations, which are many, come about.
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Demonstrat autem quod plures sunt qui in lingua tactus: omnia enim tangibilia sentit secundum eandem partem et humorem. Si quidem igitur et alia caro sentiret humorem, videretur unus et idem esse sensus gustus et tactus; nunc autem sunt duo propter id quod non convertuntur.
That they are several is proved by the fact that there are several kinds of touch in the tongue; for that same member feels all tangible objects, as well as flavor. If, then, every part of the flesh sensed flavor, it would seem that touch and taste were one and the same. But now we know that they are two, in that one organ cannot be substituted for the other.
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517. De tangibili autem et tactu etc. Postquam determinavit philosophus de sensibilibus secundum alios sensus, hic determinat ultimo de sensibili secundum tactum, quia tactus inter omnes sensus videtur esse minus spiritualis, licet sit omnium aliorum sensuum fundamentum. Dividitur autem pars ista in partes duas:
517. The same reasoning holds (422b17). Having considered the objects of the other senses, the Philosopher finally treats of the object of touch, examining this sense last of all because it appears to be the least spiritual of the senses, though it is the foundation of all the others. This section divides into two parts.
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in prima determinat quasdam dubitationes circa sensum tactus;
In the first part, he settles certain questions about the sense of touch.
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in secunda manifestat veritatem circa hunc sensum, ibi: omnino autem videtur etc.
In the second, he states the truth about this sense, at it would seem then in general (423b17; [545]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
About the first, he does two things.
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primo movet quaestiones;
First, he raises questions;
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secundo determinat eas, ibi: omnis et enim sensus etc.
second, he gives a solution to the problems in question, at for every sense (422b23; [519]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, quantum ad ea de quibus inquirendum est, eadem ratio est sive loquamur de tangibili sive de tactu: quod enim dicitur de uno oportet dici de altero, quia, si tactus non est unus sensus, sed plures, necesse est quod tangibilia non sint unum genus sensibilium, sed plura. Ideo autem hoc dicit, quia intentio sua est primo determinare de sensibilibus, postmodum autem determinabit de sensu; quia vero in his quae circa tangibile [et tactum] dicenda sunt, circa sensum tactus quaestiones movebit propter hoc quod commodius possunt pertractari quaestiones istae si moveantur circa tactum quam si moveantur circa tangibile, idcirco hanc excusationem praemisit, ostendens quod non refert utrum de tactu vel tangibili loquamur.
He observes then, first, that in the matters to be examined, the same reasoning holds whether we treat of the tangible or of touch. For what is said of one holds good of the other; and if touch is not one sense, but several, then the tangible must be not one genus of sense-object, but several. This he says because, while his intention is to define the sense-object first and after that the sense itself, in the case of touch, he is going first to inquire into the sense; and this is because the questions he wants to answer are more conveniently dealt with in this way than by treating first of the tangible object. So he prefaces his remarks with a kind of explanation, asserting that it does not matter whether we speak of the tangible or of touch.
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518. Movet ergo duas dubitationes circa tactum et tangibile, quarum prima est utrum sint plures sensus tactus aut unus tantum; secunda dubitatio est quid sit sensitivum, id est organum sentiendi, in tactu, utrum scilicet caro sit organum sensus tactus in animalibus habentibus carnem, quae sunt animalia habentia sanguinem, et in aliis, quae carent sanguine, aliquod proportionabiliter respondens carni; aut non est ita, sed caro quidem et id quod proportionabiliter ei respondet est medium in sensu tactus, sed primum organum sensus tactus est aliquid aliud intrinsecum circa cor, ut dicitur in libro De sensu et sensato.
518. Of the two questions about touch and the tangible, the first is whether the sense of touch is several senses or only one; and the second is, what is sensitive of the tangible, that is, the organ of sensing? That is, whether flesh is the organ of touch in animals that have flesh (which are those that have blood), and, in other animals that lack blood, something analogous to flesh; or, on the contrary, is flesh, or what corresponds to flesh, merely the medium of the sense of touch, while its primary organ is something internal, close to the heart? The second opinion is the one maintained in On Sense and What is Sensed.1
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519. Deinde cum dicit: omnis et enim sensus etc., determinat praemissas dubitationes.
519. Next, at for every sense seems (422b23), he begins to answer these questions.
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Et primo primam;
And first, regarding the first;
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secundo secundam, ibi: utrum autem etc.
second, the second, at the fact that sensation (422b34; [525]).
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Circa primum tria facit:
With regard to the first, he does three things.
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primo ostendit quod non est unus sensus tactus, sed plures;
First, he gives an argument for the view that there are not one but several senses of touch;
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secundo solvit positam rationem, ibi: habet autem solutionem etc.;
second, he presents a solution to the problem, at there is a partial solution; (422b27; [520]);
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tertio improbat solutionem, ibi: sed quid sit etc.
third, he criticizes this solution, at but it is not (422b31; [521]).
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Ratio ergo quam ponit primo talis est: omnis unus sensus videtur esse unius contrarietatis, sicut visus albi et nigri, auditus gravis et acuti, gustus amari et dulcis; sed in tangibili, quod est obiectum tactus, sunt multae contrarietates, scilicet calidum et frigidum, humidum et siccum, durum et molle, et quaedam alia huiusmodi, ut grave et leve, acutum et hebes, et similia; ergo tactus non est unus sensus, sed plures.
The preliminary argument runs as follows: every single sense seems to be of a single contrariety, as sight of white and black, hearing of high and low, taste of sweet and bitter; but included in the tangible, which is the object of touch, are several contrarieties, hot and cold, moist and dry, hard and soft, and others of the same kind, besides heavy and light, sharp and blunt, and so on. Therefore, touch is not one sense but several.
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520. Deinde cum dicit: habet autem solutionem etc., ponit quamdam apparentem solutionem ad praedictam rationem. Et dicit quod aliquis potest habere solutionem ad praedictam dubitationem per hoc quod etiam in aliis sensibus videntur esse plures contrarietates, sicut in auditu: nam circa vocem audibilem non solum potest attendi contrarietas acuti et gravis, sed etiam magnitudo et parvitas vocis, et lenitas et asperitas eius, et aliqua alia similia.
520. Then, at there is (422b27), he gives what might seem to be a solution, saying that one might have a solution to the aforementioned problem in that even in the other senses there appear to be several contrarieties, for example, in hearing; for in the voice, one can observe not only the contrariety of high and low, but that also of loud and soft, smooth and rough, and other such qualities.
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Et similiter circa colorem possunt inveniri aliquae aliae differentiae praeter contrarietatem albi et nigri, sicut quod aliquis color est intensus et alius remissus, et aliquis pulcher et alius turpis. Et tamen non propter hoc tollitur quin auditus sit unus sensus, et similiter visus. Unde multiplex contrarietas tangibilium non videtur impedire quominus tactus sit unus sensus.
Similarly, color presents various differences besides the contrariety of black and white, as that one color is intense, another dim, one beautiful, another ugly. Yet these facts do not mean that either vision or hearing is not a single sense; nor then need the tangible’s many contrarieties imply that touch is not a single sense.
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521. Deinde cum dicit: sed quid sit unum etc., excludit positam solutionem. Et dicit quod omnium contrarietatum quae sunt circa audibilia est unum subiectum, scilicet sonus, et similiter color circa visibilia, sed non potest inveniri quid sit commune subiectum omnium contrarietatum quae sunt circa tangibilia. Et propter hoc non videtur esse unum genus tangibilium, unde nec unus tactus.
521. Then, at but it is not clear (422b31), he sets aside this solution, saying that there is an underlying unity of all the contraries which are in the audible, that is, sound; and so too with color in the visible. But no common subject can be found which is common to all the contraries connected with touch; hence there does not seem to be one genus of the tangible, and nor does there seem to be one sense of touch.
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522. Ad evidentiam autem eorum quae hic dicuntur, considerare oportet quod distinctio potentiarum et obiectorum proportionabilis est, unde, cum unus sensus sit una potentia, oportet quod sensibile ei correspondens sit unum genus. Ostensum est autem in IX Metaphysicae, quod in uno genere est una prima contrarietas, unde oportet quod circa obiectum unius sensus attendatur tantum una prima contrarietas; et ideo hic dicit Philosophus quod unus sensus est unius contrarietatis.
522. To understand this passage, we must consider that there is a proportion involved in the distinction between powers and objects: if a single sense is a single potency, the corresponding object must be a single genus. Now, it is shown in Metaphysics 10 that each genus includes one primary contrariety.1 Hence there must be one primary contrariety in the object of any one sense, and that is why the Philosopher says here that one sense is of one contrariety.
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523. Possunt tamen in uno genere esse plures contrarietates post primam: vel per modum subdivisionis, sicut in genere corporum prima contrarietas est animati et inanimati et, quia animatum corpus dividitur per sensibile et insensibile et ulterius sensibile per rationale et irrationale, multiplicantur contrarietates in genere corporis; vel sunt plures contrarietates unius generis per accidens, sicut in genere corporis est contrarietas albi et nigri et <aliae> secundum omnia quae corpori accidere possunt. Et per hunc modum intelligendum est quod circa sonum et vocem, praeter primam contrarietatem gravis et acuti quae est per se, sunt aliae contrarietates, id est per accidens.
523. However, it is possible for one genus to include several contrarieties beside the primary one, and this either by a process of subdivision—as in the genus body, the first contrariety is between ensouled and not ensouled; and since ensouled bodies are divided into the sensitive and non-sensitive, and the sensitive yet again into rational and non-rational, contrarieties multiply in the genus body—or accidentally, as, to take the genus body again, we find the contrariety of white and black, not to mention all the other bodily accidental qualities. It is in this way that we must understand, as regards sound and voice, that, besides the primary contrariety of high and low, which is essential, there are other accidental contrarieties.
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524. In genere autem tangibilium sunt plures primae contrarietates per se, quae tamen omnes quodammodo reducuntur ad unum subiectum et quodammodo non. Potest enim accipi [subiectum] uno modo subiectum contrarietatis ipsum genus quod comparatur ad differentias contrarias sicut potentia ad actum; alio modo potest accipi subiectum contrarietatis substantia quae est subiectum generis cuius sunt contrarietates, sicut si dicamus quod corpus coloratum est subiectum albi et nigri. Si ergo loquamur de subiecto quod est genus, manifestum est quod non est idem subiectum omnium qualitatum tangibilium; si autem loquamur de subiecto quod est substantia, unum subiectum est omnium eorum, scilicet corpus pertinens ad consistentiam animalis (unde infra dicit philosophus quod tangibiles qualitates sunt corporis secundum quod est corpus, quibus scilicet elementa corporis distinguuntur ad invicem); horum enim est sensus tactus discretivus quae ad consistentiam animalis corporis pertinent. Unde formaliter loquendo et secundum rationem, sensus tactus non est unus, sed plures; subiecto autem est unus.
524. Now, in the genus of tangible things, there are several essential primary contrarieties, which can all in a way be traced back to a single subject, but in another way not. For in one way, the subject of the contrariety can be found in the genus, which is related to the various contrary differences as potency is related to act. In another way, the subject of the contraries can be found in the substance that is the subject of the genus in which the contraries are included—as when we call a colored body the subject of black and of white. Speaking, then, of the subject that is the genus, it is plain that there is no one same subject of all tangible qualities. But speaking of the subject that is the substance, there is one subject of all these, that is, the body that pertains to what constitutes the animal. This is why the Philosopher will say that tangible qualities belong to body precisely as body, that is, they are the qualities by which the elements of body are distinguished from one another.1 For the sense of touch discriminates among the things that pertain to the constitution of the animal’s body. Hence, formally speaking, and according to its account, the sense of touch is not one sense, but several; but it is one in its subject.
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525. Deinde cum dicit: utrum autem est sensitivum etc., pertractat secundam quaestionem. Et circa hoc duo facit:
525. Next, at the fact that sensation (422b34), he deals with the second question; and this, in two stages.
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primo determinat veritatem;
First, he states the true answer;
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secundo manifestat eam, ibi: propter quod talis pars etc.
second, he comes to a conclusion that throws some light on the question, at therefore it appears (423a6; [527]).
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Circa primum sciendum est quod posset alicui videri quod caro esset organum sentiendi secundum tactum, hac ratione quia statim ad tactum carnis sentimus tangibilia;
Note, in the first place, that it might appear that flesh was the organ of sensation in touch, because we feel tangible things on the instant of contact with our flesh.
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526. dicit ergo ad excludendum hanc rationem quod ad diiudicandum utrum organum tactus sit intus, aut non, sed statim caro sit organum tactus, non videtur esse sufficiens signum hoc quod simul cum caro tangitur fit sensus tangibilis, id est sentitur. Quia et nunc, si aliquis circa carnem extenderet aliquam pelliculam aut telam subtilem, statim ad tactum illius quod superextenderetur carni sentiretur tangibile; sed tamen constat quod organum sensus tactus non esset in illa pelle superextensa. Et iterum manifestum est quod si illa pellis superextensa fieret connaturalis homini, citius per eam sentiretur. Unde, licet ad tactum carnis quae est homini connaturalis statim tangibile sentiatur, non sequitur quod caro sit organum tactus, sed est quoddam medium connaturale.
526. But, setting this argument aside, he remarks that to decide whether the organ of touch be interior or not (in the latter case, the flesh would be the immediate organ of touch), it does not seem to be a sufficient sign that, when the flesh is touched, immediately there occurs a tactile sensation, that is, that the tangible is sensed. Because if one were to stretch a covering over the flesh or a delicate web, the tangible would be felt immediately on contact with it; yet it is obvious that the organ of touch would not be in that superposed skin. And again, if this superposed skin could become a part of one’s nature, one would feel even sooner through it. Hence, though at the touch of natural flesh the tangible is felt at once, still it does not follow that the flesh is the organ of touch, but only that it is a connatural medium for it.
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527. Deinde cum dicit: propter quod talis pars etc., concludit quiddam quod valet ad manifestationem primae quaestionis. Et dicit quod, quia caro est sicut medium connaturale in sensu tactus, videtur quod haec pars corporis sic se habeat ad sensum tactus sicut si aer qui est circa nos esset connaturalis nobis: videretur enim tunc quod aer ille esset organum in visu, auditu et olfactu, quamvis sit medium, et ita videremur uno organo sentire sonum et odorem et colorem, et per consequens videretur esse unus sensus auditus, visus et olfactus. Sed nunc, quia medium per quod fiunt motus dictorum sensibilium est determinatum, id est distinctum a nobis, manifestum est quod non est organum et ita manifestum est quod diversa sunt organa trium sensuum dictorum et per consequens quod sunt diversi. Sed in tactu hoc non est manifestum, quia medium est connaturale nobis,
527. Next, at therefore, it appears (423a6), he comes to a conclusion that throws light on the first question, saying that, flesh being a medium adapted to the sense of touch, it appears that this part of the body has the same sort of relation to sensation as the air would have if it formed a natural covering that grew all round our bodies. For though this air is but the medium of sight, smell, and hearing, it would appear in that case to be the organ of these senses; and thus, it would appear that we sensed sound and odor and color through a single organ and with a single organ. But in fact, just because the medium through which the motions of these sensible objects is determinate, that is, distinct from ourselves, we see clearly that it is not an organ. Moreover, there are obviously diverse organs for the three senses aforesaid and therefore a clear distinction of three senses. But it is not so clear in the case of touch; for here, the medium is a connatural part of us.
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528. et huius diversitatis rationem assignat: aer enim et aqua, quae sunt media aliorum sensuum, non possunt esse connaturalia nobis, quia impossibile est quod ex aere puro et ex aqua pura consistat animatum corpus; cum enim sint humida et fluxibilia, non sunt firma neque bene terminabilia in seipsis, sed solum alieno termino, corpus autem animatum oportet esse firmum et in se terminatum; unde oportet quod sit mixtum ex terra et aere et aqua, sicut vult se habere caro in animalibus habentibus carnem; et sic istud corpus quod est medium in tactu, scilicet caro, potest esse adnatum, id est naturaliter unitum, tactui, ita quod per ipsum sicut per medium fiant plures sensus tactus.
528. And he gives a reason for this difference. Air and water, the media of the other senses, could not be a connatural part of us, for it is impossible that an ensouled body be constituted from pure air or pure water. For these substances, being watery and fluid, are not solid or bounded by themselves; they need to be bounded by other things, whereas a living body must be solid and self-contained. Hence, the latter needs to be a mixture of earth and air and water, as it requires, that is, as flesh requires in animals that have flesh, and correspondingly, for those that have it not. So, this body that is the medium in touch, that is, flesh, is able to be naturally joined or united with touch in such a way that many sensations of touch come about.
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529. Deinde cum dicit: demonstrat autem etc., ponit quiddam aliud ad idem manifestandum. Et dicit quod hoc idem demonstratur per hoc quod in lingua sunt plures tactus: sentimus enim per linguam omnia tangibilia qua sentimus per alias partes corporis et ulterius per ipsam sentimus humorem, id est saporem, quem non sentimus per aliquam aliam partem corporis. Si autem alia caro sentiret saporem, non discerneremus inter gustum et tactum, sicut nunc non discernimus inter tactum qui est discretivus sicci et humidi et inter tactum qui est discretivus calidi et frigidi; sed nunc apparet quod gustus et tactus sunt duo sensus, quia non convertuntur invicem: non enim per quamcumque partem fit sensus tactus, fit et gustus. Ratio autem quare non per partem quamlibet fit gustus per quam fit tactus, est quia sapores non sunt qualitates elementorum, ex quibus corpus animalis constat; unde nec pertinent ad consistentiam animalis sicut qualitates tangibiles.
529. Then, at that they are several (423a17), he states another fact in support of this. In the tongue also, he says, are several kinds of touch; for by it we feel all the objects of touch that are felt in other parts of the body, and we feel, besides, the flavor or savor that is not sensed in other parts of the body. If every part of the flesh sensed savors, we should not discriminate between taste and touch, just as we do not in fact discriminate between the touch that discerns hot and cold and that which discerns wet and dry. But now it is quite clear that touch and taste are two senses, because they cannot be substituted for the other: taste does not occur in every part where touch can occur. And the reason why taste is not to be found wherever there is touch is that savors are not qualities of those elements which constitute the bodies of animals; hence, they do not, like tangible qualities, pertain to what constitutes the animal.
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L. 23 (B.11, 423a21–424a16)Touch: its medium, object, and organ
Quaerit num tactus et gustus sentiant per medium extraneum; et ostendit quod sic, differenter tamen ab aliis sensibus: carnem etiam non organum tactus, sed medium potius esse probat: quod demum in debita compositione tangibilium qualitatum tactus ipse consistat, et quorum tangibilium sit perceptivus, declarat
Touch: its medium, object, and organ
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Dubitabit autem utique aliquis, si omne corpus profundum habet, hoc autem est tertia magnitudo, quorum autem corporum medium est aliquod corpus, non contingit ipsa ad invicem se tangere, humidum autem non est sine corpore, neque humectum, sed necesse est aquam esse aut habere aquam, quae vero tanguntur ad invicem in aqua nisi sint sicca extrema necesse est aquam habere medium, qua repleta sint ultima, si autem hoc verum est, impossibile est tangere aliud aliud in aqua. Eodem autem modo est et in aere: similiter enim se habet aer ad ea quae sunt in ipso et aqua ad ea quae sunt in aqua, latet autem magis nos, sicut et quae sunt in aqua animalia si humectum tangit humectum.
A problem arises on the assumption that every body has depth, that is, the third dimension. Bodies having between them a medium which is a body cannot directly touch one another. Now, every liquid involves body, and so does everything moistened; it must either be water or contain water. But things that touch one another in water must necessarily have water as a medium covering their extremities, unless these last be dry. If this is true, it is impossible for one body to touch another in water. The same holds good of air (for air is to the things that are in it as water to things in water), although this fact is less evident to us, just as animals that live in water are unaware that bodies that touch in water are all wet.
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Utrum igitur omnium similiter sit sensus, an aliorum aliter, sicut nunc videtur gustus quidem et tactus in tangendo, alii autem a longe.
The question, then, is whether there is one way of sensing for all objects of sense, or different ways for diverse objects. The latter at first sight seems to be the case—taste and touch being effected by contact, the others from a distance.
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Hoc autem non est, sed durum et molle per altera sentimus, sicut et sonabile et visibile et odorabile; sed alia quidem a longe, alia vero a prope, propter quod latet; quoniam omnia quidem sentimus per medium, sed in his latet.
But this is not so: we do sense the hard and the soft through something else, just as we do the audible and the visible and the odorous. But of these objects, some operate at a distance, others close at hand. That is why the fact escapes us: we do sense everything through a medium, but the fact is not evident in the latter cases.
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Et quidem, sicut diximus prius, et si per pellem sentiremus omnia tangibilia ignorato quoniam prohibet, similiter utique haberemus et nunc in aqua et in aere; putamus enim nunc ipsa tangere et nihil esse per medium.
Indeed, as we said before, if we were to sense all tangible objects through a membrane, not knowing what was interpolated, we should think we touched the objects themselves, as we now do in air and water: for in these cases we think we touch the objects and that there is no medium.
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Sed differt tangibile a visibilibus et sonativis, quoniam illa quidem sentimus ex eo quod medium movet aliquid nos, tangibilia vero non a medio, sed simul cum medio, sicut per clipeum percussus: non enim clipeus percussus percussit, sed simul accidit utraque percuti.
But the tangible differs from the visible and the audible; for we sense the latter in that the medium itself moves something in us; whereas the tangible does not affect us through the medium so much as with the medium, simultaneously, as when one is struck on a shield. For the shield does not strike its holder after it is itself struck; but the two are struck at once.
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Omnino autem videtur caro et lingua, sicut aer et aqua ad visum et auditum et olfactum se habent, sic se habere ad sensitivum sicut illorum unumquodque. Ipso autem sensitivo tacto neque ibi neque hic fiet utique sensus, ut si quis ponat corpus album in oculum ultimum.
It would seem in general that flesh and the tongue stand to the sense organ precisely as water and air to sight and hearing and smell, each to its respective sense. When the sense organ is touched (as when one places a white object on the surface of the eye), no sensation is produced in either case.
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Qua et manifestum quod intus sit tangibilis sensitivum. Sic enim utique accidet quod quidem in aliis: apposita enim super sensitivum non sentiunt, super autem carnem posita sentiunt; quare medium tactivi caro.
Hence, the organ of the tangible is internal, for the same thing happens in this sense as in the others. For what is placed on the organ they do not sense; what, however, is placed on flesh, they do sense. Flesh, then, is the medium of touch.
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Tangibiles quidem igitur sunt differentiae corporis secundum quod corpus; dico autem differentias quibus elementa determinant, calidum frigidum, humidum siccum, de quibus prius dictum est in his que de elementis.
Tangible objects vary, therefore, with differences of body as such—I mean the differences by which the elements are distinguished, as hot and cold, wet and dry, as has been stated earlier in our work on the elements.
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Sensitivum autem ipsarum quod tactivum, et in quo sensus vocatus tactus est primo, quod potentia huiusmodi pars est; sentire enim pati quoddam est; quare faciens quale ipsum actu, huiusmodi illud facit cum sit potentia. Unde similiter calidum et frigidum, aut durum et molle non sentimus, sed excellentias, tanquam sensu velut medietate quadam existente eius quae in sensibilibus contrarietatis. Et propter hoc discernunt sensitiva sensibilia.
The sense organ for these, the tactile, in which the sense called touch primarily resides, is the part in potency to these qualities. For to sense is a certain being acted upon. Hence, whatever makes the organ to be such as it itself is actually, does so with the organ being in potency thereto. Hence, we do not sense what has heat or cold or hardness or softness to an exact likeness of our own heat, and so forth, but rather the extremes of these: the sense being, as it were, in a mean state between the contrary extremes in the sensible objects, which is how it discerns them.
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Medium enim discretivum est: fit enim ad utrumque ipsorum alterum ultimorum; et oportet sicut debens sentire album et nigrum neutrum ipsorum esse actu, potentia vero utrumque, sic autem et in aliis, et in tactu neque calidum neque frigidum.
For a mean is discriminative; in the presence of either extreme, it becomes the contrary one. Hence, as whatever is to sense black or white must have neither of these in itself actually, but both potentially (and so with the other sense-objects), so touch must be actually neither hot nor cold.
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Amplius autem sicut visibilis et invisibilis erat quodam modo visus, similiter autem et reliqui oppositorum, sic et actus tangibilis et intangibilis; intangibile autem parvam omnino habens differentiam tangibilium, ut passus est aer, et tangibilium excellentiae, sicut corruptiva.
Further, as sight is, in a certain way, of the visible and the invisible (and similarly with the rest of such opposites), so touch is of both the tangible and the intangible. The intangible is that which has the distinguishing quality of tangibles to a very small extent, as air is affected, and also the excessively tangible, such as things destructive.
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Secundum unumquemque quidem igitur sensuum dictum est figuraliter.
We have now said in outline something about each of the senses.
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530. Dubitabit autem utique, etc. Ostenso quod in sensu tactus requiritur medium connaturale, hic inquirit philosophus utrum requiratur in eo medium extraneum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
530. A problem arises on the assumption (423a21). Having shown how the sense of touch requires a medium that is of the nature of the one who touches, the Philosopher goes on to ask whether it needs an extraneous medium. And his answer contains two points.
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primo ostendit quod tactus non fit sine medio extraneo;
First, he shows that touch does not occur without an extraneous medium.
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secundo ostendit in quo differant tactus et gustus <ab aliis sensibus> qui per medium extraneum sentiunt, ibi: utrum igitur etc.
Second, at the question, then, is whether (423b1; [541]), he shows how touch and taste differ from other senses, which sense through an extraneous medium.
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Dicit ergo primo quod circa tactum potest aliquis dubitare, utrum scilicet habeat medium extraneum, cum ostensum sit quod habeat medium connaturale, et ista dubitatio procedit si omne corpus habet profundum, quod est tertia dimensio (manifestum est enim omne corpus tres dimensiones habere, scilicet longitudinem, latitudinem et profunditatem), ex quo sequitur quod inter quaecumque corpora est aliquod corpus medium, ipsa non tangunt se invicem immediate: distant enim ad invicem ex quo aliqua dimensio est inter ea;
First, then, he remarks that in the case of touch, one might doubt whether it has an extraneous medium, since we have seen that the medium of touch is a natural part of us.1 Every body has depth, that is, a third dimension. And indeed it is clear that every body has three dimensions: length, breadth, and depth; whence it follows that whenever two bodies have a medium between them, the former bodies are not in direct contact; they must be divided by some dimension that is between them.
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531. manifestum est etiam quod ubicumque est humidum vel humectum, oportet esse aliquod corpus: humiditas enim cum sit quaedam qualitas non est nisi in subiecto corpore, aut igitur inest alicui corpori secundum seipsum et tunc est humidum, sicut aqua, aut habet humiditatem secundum aliquod corpus sibi adveniens et sic dicitur humectum, ex hoc quod habet aquam vel in superficie tantum vel in superficie et profundo; et hoc est quod dicit quod necesse est omne corpus humidum vel humectum, esse aquam aut habere aquam;
531. It is also evident that wherever there is a liquid or moistened medium, there must be a body of some sort. For wetness is a quality and must exist in a body as its subject. Either then it resides in a body essentially, and then there is a liquid, for example, water; or it exists in virtue of some adventitious body, in which case there is something that is wet, that is, having water either on its surface only or on its surface and throughout it as well; so he says that every humid or wet body must either be water or contain water.
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manifestum est autem quod corpora quae tanguntur ad invicem in aqua necesse est quod habeant inter se aquam medium, qua repleta sint ultima, nisi forte dicatur quod sint sicca in aqua extrema, quod est impossibile (necesse est enim quod ea quae in aqua sunt sint humecta et ita oportet quod habeant aquam in superficie), et sic relinquitur quod inter duo tangentia se in aqua sit aqua medium, et, si hoc verum est, sequitur quod impossibile sit quod aliud corpus tangat aliud in aqua immediate. Et similiter eodem modo se habet de aere, qui est humidus naturaliter sicut et aqua:
Now it is clear that bodies which touch one another in water have water as a medium between them covering their extremities—unless it should be said that they are dry in water, which is impossible; for whatever things are in water must be wet, in the sense that water covers their surfaces. Water, then, is the medium between two things touching each other in water; whence it follows that it is impossible for one body to touch another in water immediately. And likewise, the same holds good of air, which is naturally a fluid, as water is.
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532. similiter enim se habet aer ad humectanda ea quae sunt in aere sicut se habet aqua ad humectanda ea quae sunt in aqua, sed magis latet nos de aere quod sit medium quam de aqua propter hoc quod continue sumus in aere et sic imperceptibiliter inhaeret nobis; et similiter animalia quae sunt in aqua latet si duo corpora humectata per aquam se tangant: quia enim continue sunt in aqua, non percipiunt aquam quae est inter ipsa et corpora tangentia. Est autem et alia ratio quare magis latet nos de aere quam de aqua, quia aer subtilior est et minus sensu perceptibilis. Relinquitur igitur quod semper quando tangimus aliquid est medium inter nos et res contactas aer vel aqua.
532. For the air is to the things that are in it as water to things in water; but it is less evident to us that air is a medium of this kind than that water is, on account of our being continually in the air, so that it envelops us imperceptibly. In the same way, animals that live in water are not aware that when two bodies touch one another, their surfaces are wet; for, being habitually in water, they do not notice the water between them and the bodies they are touching. Another reason why the fact is less evident to us in the case of air than in water is that air is more subtle and less perceptible to sense. Whenever, then, we touch anything, there is always a medium between ourselves and the thing touched, whether air or water.
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533. Sed dubitatio hic accidit. Oportet enim id quod est medium in aliquo sensu esse denudatum a qualitatibus sensibilibus secundum illum sensum, sicut diaphanum nullum habet colorem; manifestum est autem quod aer et aqua habent tangibiles qualitates; non igitur eis mediantibus potest fieri sensus tactus.
533. But a question suggests itself here. For the medium for any sense should be lacking in the sensible qualities perceived by it—for example, the transparent has no color. But obviously air and water have tangible qualities; so it seems they cannot be the medium for the sense of touch.
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534. Respondet autem ad hoc Averrois quod nos non patimur a puro aere vel aqua: nihil enim patitur nisi a suo contrario secundum principium passionis, aer autem et aqua non contrariantur nobis, sed sunt nobis similia, comparantur enim ad nos sicut locus ad locatum; unde tactus noster non patitur a qualitatibus aeris vel aquae, sed ab extraneis qualitatibus: quod enim sentitur de qualitatibus tangibilibus in aere et aqua est de admixtione extraneorum corporum, ut ipse dicit, quia sicut ignis numquam amittit calorem suum, ita nec aqua amittit suam frigiditatem, sed quod aliquando sentitur calida, hoc est ex permixtione extranei.
534. Averroes answers that we are not acted upon by pure air or pure water.1 For nothing is acted upon, he says, save by its contrary, in accordance with the principle of passivity; but air and water are not contrary to us—they are indeed akin to us, for they are related to us as a place is related to what is contained by it. Hence our touch is not acted upon by air and water, but by qualities extraneous to them. For what tangible qualities are sensed in air and water are due to their combination with extraneous bodies, as he says, for as fire never loses its heat, so water never loses its coolness; and if we ever sense it as hot, this is due to the admixture of something extraneous.
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535. In hac autem responsione est multiplex error.
535. Now, this reply contains several errors.
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Primo quidem in hoc quod dicit quod corpora nostra non patiuntur ab aere vel aqua quia sunt similia nobis sicut locus locato. Manifestum est enim quod corpora nostra sortiuntur locum naturalem sicut et motum naturalem ex natura elementi praedominantis, non ergo aliter comparantur ad locum et ad corpora continentia corpora nostra quam ipsa elementa locata; elementa autem in suis extremitatibus se alterant, ut patet per Aristotelem in I Meteororum; corpora igitur nostra ab elementis nata sunt alterari.
First, it is false to assert that air and water do not act on our bodies because we are akin to these as what is in place to the place. For clearly our bodies get their natural place as they do their natural movement, from the element that predominates in them; and, consequently, our bodies are related to place and to the containing bodies as the elements themselves are related to place. But the elements mutually alter one another at their extremities, as Aristotle shows in Meteorology 1.1 Our bodies, therefore, are naturally subject to the influence of the elements.
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536. Item, omne quod est in potentia natum est pati ab eo quod est in actu; corpora autem nostra, cum sint in quadam medietate constituta inter extremitates tangibilium qualitatum quae sunt in elementis, habent se ad qualitates elementares ut potentia ad actum; medium enim est in potentia ad extrema, ut infra dicetur; manifestum est igitur quod corpora nostra nata sunt immutari a qualitatibus elementorum et sentire eas.
536. Again, everything in potency is naturally apt to be acted upon by what is in act; and our bodies, being in a mean state between the extremes of the tangible qualities, which are in the elements, are related to these elementary qualities as potency to act. For, as we shall see, a mean is in potency to the extremes. It is evident, then, that our bodies are naturally apt to be modified by the elemental qualities and to sense them.
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537. Provenit autem hic error ex eo quod nescivit distinguere inter elementa secundum quod sunt sibi invicem contraria et secundum quod sunt se continentia et sibi similia ut locus locato;
537. This error of Averroes comes from his failing to distinguish between the elements as contrary to each other and as akin to and containing one another (as place contains what is in a place).
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538. dicendum est igitur quod elementa possunt dupliciter considerari: uno modo secundum qualitates activas et passivas, et sic contrariantur ad invicem et se invicem immutant in suis extremis; alio modo secundum formas substantiales, quas consequuntur ex impressione corporis caelestis; unde quanto aliquod corpus elementare est propinquius corpori caelesti, tanto plus habet de forma, et quia ad formam pertinet continere et quod se habeat in ratione totius, inde est quod corpus superius continet inferius et comparatur ad ipsum sicut totum ad partem divisam, quae est comparatio loci ad locatum; unde et vis locantis et continentis derivatur ad elementa ex primo continente, scilicet corpore caelesti. Et propter hoc locus et motus localis non attribuuntur elementis secundum qualitates activas et passivas, sed consequuntur formas substantiales elementorum.
538. Note, then, that the elements can be considered in two ways: in one way, in terms of active and passive qualities, and in this sense they are contrary to one another and act upon one another at their points of contact; but in another way, in terms of their substantial forms, which arise from the influence of the heavenly body. Whence, the elements have more of form to the degree that they are closer to the heavenly body; and since it pertains to form to contain, and it relates to things in the account of a whole, it follows that the higher body contains the lower and stands to the latter as a whole to a distinct part, which is the relation of a place to what is placed. This is also why the function of placing and containing is derived to the elements from the primary container, the heavenly body. Whence place and local motion are not attributed to the elements in virtue of their active and passive qualities, but rather they follow the elements’ substantial forms.
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539. Alius error est in hoc quod dicit quod aqua et aer non alterantur nisi per admixtionem extranei. Manifestum est enim quod aer et aqua secundum partem corruptibilia sunt; corruptio autem et generatio in elementis potest fieri sine mixtione et sequitur alterationem, ut patet in libro De generatione; unde manifestum est quod, adhuc durante specie aquae, potest immutari aqua a sua qualitate naturali absque admixtione extranei. Ignis autem, cum sit formalior, est magis activus inter elementa, quae omnia comparantur ad ipsum ut materialia, ut in IV Meteororum dicitur; unde non est simile de ipso et de aliis.
539. Another error is that he says that air and water are not altered save by mixing with something extraneous. For it is evident that air and water are in some degree destructible; but destruction and generation can take place in the elements without any mixing and yet these follow after alteration, as is proved in On Generation.1 Therefore, so long as water remains in the form of water, its natural quality can be changed without the admixture of anything extraneous. The case of fire is quite different; being the most formal and active of the elements, the rest are material in relation to it, as Aristotle says in Meteorology 4.2
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540. Dicendum est ergo quod, cum aer et aqua sint facile mutabiles ab extraneis qualitatibus et praecipue quando sunt modicae quantitatis, sicut accidit in aqua vel aere quae sunt inter duo corpora se tangentia, propter hoc non impeditur sensus tactus quin per medium aerem et aquam fieri possit (et minus etiam impedit aer quam aqua, quia aer habet qualitates tangibiles parum sensibiles). Unde, si intendantur qualitates tangibiles aeris vel aquae, magis impeditur tactus, utpote cum aer vel aqua intensam frigiditatem vel caliditatem habuerint.
540. It may be said, then, that air and water are easily changeable by extraneous qualities, especially in small quantities, such as the amount of air and water between two bodies that touch one another. This is why the sense of touch is not impeded by the medium of water or air. And, of the two, air is less an impediment than water, for its tangible qualities are scarcely perceptible at all. But an intensification of the tangible qualities of air or water, as when they become extremely hot or cold, does of course impede the sense of touch.
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541. Deinde cum dicit: utrum igitur etc., ostendit differentiam inter gustum et tactum et sensus alios.
541. Then, when he says, the question (423b1), he shows the difference between touch and taste, on the one hand, and the rest of the senses on the other.
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Et primo excludit quamdam differentiam aestimatam;
First, he rejects a supposed ground of differentiation.
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secundo ponit differentiam veram, ibi: sed differt etc.
Second, he states the true difference, at but the tangible differs (423b12; [543]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, ex quo tactus habet medium extraneum, considerandum est utrum omnium sensibilium similiter fiat sensus, an diversorum diversimode, sicut in promptu haec videtur esse differentia quod gustus et tactus sentiant ex eo quod immediate tangant, alii autem sentiant a longe sua sensibilia non tangendo ipsa.
In the first place, then, he says that this question of the extraneous medium of touch leads one to ask whether the sensation of all sense-objects occurs in one way or diversely for diverse objects—it seems, at first sight, that touch and taste sense by immediate contact, while the other senses apprehend their objects from a distance.
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542. Sed hoc non est verum quod sic differant, sed durum et molle et alias qualitates tangibiles sentimus per altera, id est per media extranea, sicut et obiecta aliorum sensuum, scilicet sonabile, visibile et odorabile; sed ista sensibilia sunt a longe quandoque a sensu, gustabilia autem et tangibilia sunt de prope intantum quod medium est quasi imperceptibile propter parvitatem, et ideo medium latet: omnia enim sensibilia sentimus per medium extraneum, sed in gustabilibus et tangibilibus latet. Quia, sicut prius diximus, si per aliquam pellem nobis circumpositam omnia tangibilia sentiremus ignorato quod aliquid esset prohibens, similiter nos haberemus ad sentiendum per medium sicut et nunc nos habemus sentientes in aqua et aere; putamus enim nunc quod tangamus ipsa sensibilia et nihil sit medium.
542. But this difference is illusory; we do in fact sense the hard and the soft and other tangible qualities through something else, an extraneous medium, just as the objects of other senses, the audible, the visible, and the odorous. But while the latter objects are sometimes at a distance from the sense, the tasteable and tangible are so close that the medium is almost imperceptible and therefore escapes us. We do sense every sense-object through an extraneous medium, but it is not evident in taste and touch; as we said before, if we were to sense all tangible objects through a membrane, not knowing what was interpolated, we should feel through a medium in a manner as we do now when we actually feel in air or water.1 For as it is, we think we touch the sense-objects themselves and that there is no medium.
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543. Deinde cum dicit: sed differt etc., exclusa falsa differentia ponit veram. Et dicit quod tangibilia differunt a visibilibus et sonativis, ex eo quod illa sensibilia sentimus per hoc quod movent medium et iterum medium movet nos, sed tangibilia sentimus per medium extraneum non quasi moti a medio extraneo, sed simul cum medio movemur a sensibili, sicut patet de eo qui percutitur per clypeum: non enim accidit sic quod clypeus percussus percutiat, sed simul accidit utrumque percuti.
543. Then, at but the tangible differs (423b12), having rejected the false difference, he states the true one, observing that tangible objects differ from the visible and the audible in that, whereas we sense the latter because they set in motion the medium, and the medium in turn moves us, we sense tangible objects, not as moved by an extraneous medium, but as being moved simultaneously with the medium, by the sense-object. It is as when a man is struck on a shield; the shield, after it is itself struck, does not then strike the man, but man and shield are struck at once.
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544. Quod autem hic dicitur simul non est intelligendum secundum ordinem temporis tantum, quia et in visu simul movetur medium ab obiecto et sensus a medio (fit enim visio sine successione, perceptio autem soni et odoris cum successione aliqua, ut in libro De sensu et sensato dicetur), sed hoc referendum est ad ordinem causae: in aliis enim sensibus immutatio medii est causa quod immutetur sensus, non autem in tactu; nam in aliis sensibus medium est ex necessitate, in tactu autem quasi per accidens inquantum accidit corpora se tangentia esse humecta.
544. Nor is this at once to be understood in the order of time only; for in sight the medium is affected by the visible and the eye by the medium, and yet sight occurs without succession in time. Smelling and hearing, however, take place with some temporal succession, as it is said in On Sense and What is Sensed.1 The succession is due to the way the cause of the action operates; for whereas in the other senses a change in the medium is itself the cause of the sense being affected, it is not so in touch; for in other sensations the medium is present of necessity, while it is only, as it were, an accidental accompaniment of touch, due to the fact, for example, that the bodies in contact are moist.
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545. Deinde cum dicit: omnino autem videtur etc., determinat de sensu tactus secundum veritatem.
545. Next, when he says, it would seem in general (423b17), he concludes to the truth about the sense of touch:
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Et primo quantum ad medium;
first, with regard to the medium;
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secundo quantum ad qualitatem organi, ibi: tangibiles quidem etc.;
second, with regard to the organ, at tangible objects vary (423b26; [546]);
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tertio quantum ad obiectum quod percipitur sensu, ibi: amplius autem etc.
third, with regard to the object apprehended by this sense, at further, as sight (424a10; [549]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod ita videntur se habere caro et lingua ad organum sensus tactus sicut se habent aer et aqua ad organum visus, auditus et olfactus. In nullo enim istorum sensuum potest fieri sensus, si tangatur organum, ut si quis ponat aliquod corpus album in superficie oculi, non videtur. Unde manifestum est quod organum sensitivum in sensu tactus sit intus. Sic enim accidit in hoc sensu sicut et in aliis: non enim sentiunt alia sensibilia apposita super organum sensus, sentiunt autem sensibilia posita super carnem; quare manifestum est quod caro non est organum sensus tactus, sed medium.
First, then, he observes that the flesh and the tongue seem to be related to the organ of touch as water and air to the organs of sight, hearing and smell. Now, in none of these latter senses can sensation occur if the organ itself is touched; thus, a white object placed on the surface of the eye is invisible. Thus it is clear that the organ of touch is internal, for this sense works in the same way as in others; and since animals do not sense sense-objects apart from their sense organs, if animals can sense sense-objects placed on their flesh, it is evident that flesh is not precisely a sense organ but rather a medium of sensation.
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546. Deinde cum dicit: tangibiles quidem etc., ostendit quale sit organum sensus tactus. Et dicit quod tangibiles qualitates sunt differentiae corporis secundum quod est corpus, id est differentiae quibus elementa distinguuntur ad invicem, scilicet calidum frigidum, humidum et siccum, de quibus dictum est in his quae sunt de elementis, scilicet in libro De generatione.
546. Then, at tangible objects (423b26), he explains the nature of the organ of touch. Tangible qualities, he says, are the differences of body precisely as body, that is, those differences which diversify the elements from each other, namely, dry and wet, hot and cold, of which Aristotle has spoken in his work on the elements, On Generation and Corruption.1
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547. Manifestum est autem quod organum tactivum, et in quo primo fundatur sensus qui dicitur tactus, est quaedam pars quae est in potentia ad huiusmodi qualitates; organum enim sensus patitur a sensibili, quia sentire est pati quoddam; unde sensibile quod est agens facit ipsum esse tale in actu quale sensibile est, cum sit in potentia ad hoc. Et propter hoc organum tactus non sentit illam qualitatem secundum quam est in actu: non enim sentimus id quod est calidum aut frigidum, durum aut molle, secundum illum modum quo haec insunt organo tactus, sed sentimus excellentias tangibilium, quasi organo tactus constituto in aliqua medietate inter contrarias tangibiles qualitates. Et propter hoc organum tactus discernit extrema tangibilium. Medium enim est discretivum extremorum: potest enim pati ab utroque extremorum eo quod dum comparatur ad unum habet se in ratione alterius, sicut tepidum in comparatione ad calidum est frigidum et in comparatione ad frigidum est calidum (unde medium patitur ab utroque extremorum, cum sit quodammodo utrique contrarium); et oportet quod, sicut organum quod debet sentire album et nigrum neutrum ipsorum habeat in actu, sed utrumque in potentia, et eodem modo in aliis sensibus, sic etiam se habeat in sensu tactus, ut scilicet organum neque sit calidum neque frigidum actu, sed potentia utrumque.
547. For it is clear that the organ for the tactile, in which the sense called touch primarily resides, is the part of the body in potency to these qualities. For every sense organ is acted upon by its sense-object, because to sense is a certain being acted upon. Hence, the sense-object, which is the agent, makes it be actually in a condition similar to itself, for it was in potency to this. This is why, in the degree that the organ of touch already actually has any quality, it does not sense this quality. For we do not sense a thing as hot or cold, hard or soft, insofar as these qualities are already present in the organ of touch; rather, we sense the extremes of the tangible qualities, as though the organ of touch has been established in a certain mean state between contrasted tangible qualities. This is why the organ of touch discerns between the extremes of the tangibles. For a mean is discriminative of its extremes, because it can be acted upon by each of the extremes insofar as it is related to one of them in the account of the other: for example, as compared with heat the tepid is cool, but as compared with cold, it is warm. Thus the mean is acted upon by both extremes, being in a way the contrary of each. As the organ that is to sense white and black must have neither of these actually but both of them potentially (and the like is true of the other senses), so also is it, and necessarily, in the sense of touch: its organ is neither hot nor cold, but in potency to both.
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548. Aliter tamen accidit hoc circa tactum et circa alios sensus. Nam in visu organum visus est in potentia ad album et nigrum ut denudatum a toto genere albi et nigri: est enim penitus carens colore; sed organum tactus non potest denudari a toto genere calidi et frigidi, humidi et sicci: componitur enim ex elementis quorum haec sunt qualitates; sed sic fit in potentia organum tactus ad sua obiecta inquantum est medium inter contraria, medium enim est in potentia ad extrema. Et propter hoc, quanto animal habet complexionem magis reductam ad medium, tanto habet meliorem tactum; unde homo inter omnia animalia est melioris tactus, ut supra dictum est.
548. But this occurs in a special way in touch. In sight, for instance, the organ in potency to black and white is quite free from the entire genus of black and white, for it is wholly lacking in color. But in the case of touch, the organ cannot be completely deprived of the genus of hot and cold, moist and dry, for it is composed of elements having these qualities essentially. Rather, the organ of touch is in potency to its objects to the degree that it is a mean between the contraries, for a mean is in potency to either extreme. Whence it follows that the closer an animal’s composition approaches the mean state, the finer will be its sense of touch; and that is why man, of all animals, has the finest touch, as we have seen.1
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549. Deinde cum dicit: amplius autem sicut etc., determinat de eo quod percipitur per tactum. Et dicit quod, sicut visus est quodammodo visibilis et invisibilis et sicut alii sensus sunt oppositorum ut auditus soni et silentii, sic et tactus est tangibilis et intangibilis; intangibile autem dicitur dupliciter: aut id quod habet parum de qualitate tangibili, sicut aer; aut id quod habet excellenter, ita quod corrumpat sensum, sicut ignis: utrumque enim dicitur intangibile, quasi male perceptibile sensu tactus.
549. Next, at further, as sight (424a10), he concludes about the object of touch. As sight, he says, is of the visible and invisible, and the other senses are also of opposites (as hearing of sound and silence), so touch is of both the tangible and the intangible. Intangible is said in two ways: either of that which has a tangible quality to an excess such that it destroys the sense, like fire; or of that which has very slight tangibility, like air. Both are called intangible because both are hard to perceive by touch.
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550. Ultimo quasi epilogando concludit quod figuraliter, id est in quadam summa, dictum est de sensibilibus secundum unumquemque sensum; de eis enim specialiter determinatur in libro De sensu et sensato.
550. Summing up, he says that he has spoken in outline (424a15), that is, in a summary manner, of each of the several senses. For he deals with them more in detail in On Sense and What is Sensed.1
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L. 24 (B.12, 424a17–424b18)General conclusions on sensation
Nonnulla tradit, quae communia esse videntur omnibus sensibus: videlicet, sensum esse receptivum specierum sine materia: propter quid item sensibilium excellentiae sensus ipsos corrumpant, et cur plantae minime sentiant exponit; quaerit demum, num quippiam sensibili pati contingat, quod sensu prorsus careat
General conclusions on sensation
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Oportet autem universaliter de omni sensu accipere quoniam sensus quidem est susceptivus specierum sine materia, ut cera anuli sine ferro et auro recipit signum. Accipit autem aureum aut aeneum signum, sed non in quantum aurum aut aes. Similiter autem et sensus uniuscuiusque ab habente colorem aut humorem aut sonum patitur, sed non in quantum unumquodque illorum dicitur, sed in quantum huiusmodi et secundum rationem.
It must be taken universally that all sensation is the receiving of species without matter, just as wax receives the sign of the signet-ring without the iron or gold. It receives the mark of the gold or bronze, but not insofar as it is gold or bronze. Similarly, the sense of any sense-object is acted upon by a thing having color or flavor or sound, not, however, in respect of what each is called as a particular thing, but insofar as each is of a certain sort and according to its account.
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Sensitivum autem primum est in quo huiusmodi potentia. Est quidem igitur idem, sed esse alterum est. Magnitudo quidem enim quaedam erit quod sensum patitur, non tamen sensitivo esse neque sensus magnitudo est, sed ratio quaedam et potentia illius.
The primary sensitive part is that in which a power of this sort resides. They are therefore indeed the same thing, but they differ in mode of being. For what is acted upon in sensation will be a magnitude, but neither being sensitive nor sensation is a magnitude. Each is, rather, a certain ratio and a power of that magnitude.
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Manifestum autem ex his et propter quid sensibilium excellentiae corrumpunt sensitiva: si namque sit fortior sensitivo motus, solvitur ratio, hoc autem erat sensus; sicut et symphonia et tonus percussis fortiter cordis. Et propter quid plantae non sentiunt, habentes quandam partem animalem et patientes a tangibilibus (et namque frigescunt et calescunt); causa enim non habere medietatem, neque huiusmodi principium possibile recipere species sensibilium, sed pati cum materia.
It is clear from these facts why the excess of sensible qualities destroys the sensitive power. For if the motion is too strong for the sense, the ratio—which is the sense—is lost. It is as with tone and harmony when the strings are violently struck. Also, on account of this it is plain why plants do not sense, though they have some share in soul and are acted upon by tangible objects to become hot or cold. The reason is that they lack the mediate state, nor do they have a principle of the sort that is able to receive the species of sense-objects, but they are acted upon with matter.
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Dubitabit autem aliquis si patiatur aliquid ab odore quod impossibile est olfactum habere aut a colore non possibile videre; similiter autem et in aliis.
It might be asked, is anything acted upon by odor, if it cannot have the sense of smell—or by color, if it is unable to see? And so in the other cases.
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Si autem olfactibile odor, si aliquid facit, olfactum odor facit; quare impossibilium olfactum habere, nihil possibile pati ab odore. Eadem autem ratio et in aliis, neque possibilium, sed in quantum unumquodque sensitivum.
But if what can be smelled is odor, whatever causes smell is odor. Hence things incapable of smelling cannot be acted upon by odor. The same argument holds for the other senses. And of subjects that can perceive, the ability belongs to them only in virtue of each being sensitive.
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Simul autem manifestum est et sic: neque enim lumen et tenebra neque sonus neque odor nullum facit in corpora, sed in quibus est, ut aer qui cum tonitruum est, scindit lignum.
The same is evident thus: neither light or darkness or sound or odor affect bodies, but only what they occur in does so; e.g., it is the air which accompanies thunder that smashes trees.
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Sed tangibilia et humores faciunt: si enim non, a quo utique patientur inanimata et alterabuntur? Ergone et illa faciunt?
But things tangible and savors do so affect things. If not, what is it that non-souled things are affected and changed by? Therefore, do not also the other sense-objects have a like effect?
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Aut non omne corpus passivum ab odore et sono, et patientia indeterminata et non manent, ut aer: fetet enim sicut patiens aliquid.
But not every body is acted upon by odor or sound, such recipients being only things indeterminate and unstable, like air, which may stink, as though acted upon somehow.
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Quid igitur est odorare, praeter pati aliquid? Aut odorare sentire est, aer autem patiens hoc mox sensibilis fit.
What, then, is it to smell, save to be acted upon somehow? But to smell is to sense. Air, however, being so acted upon, becomes rapidly sensible.
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551. Oportet autem universaliter etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de sensibus secundum unumquemque sensum, hic determinat de sensu. Et circa hoc tria facit:
551. It must be taken universally (424a17). Having examined each of the senses separately, the Philosopher now draws a conclusion about sensation. About this he does three things.
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primo ostendit quid sit sensus;
First, he explains what sensation is.
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secundo concludit solutionem quarumdam quaestionum ex definitione sensus posita, ibi: manifestum autem ex his etc.;
Second, at it is clear (424a28; [556]), he solves certain problems connected with that definition of sensation.
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tertio movet quasdam dubitationes circa passionem sensus a sensibilibus, ibi: dubitabit autem etc.
And third, at it might be asked (424b3; [558]), he raises certain questions about the way a sense is affected by its object.
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Circa primum duo facit:
As regards the first point, he does two things.
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primo ostendit quid sit sensus;
First, he shows what sensation is;
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secundo quid sit organum sensus, ibi: sensitivum autem primum etc.
second, he shows what the organ of sensation is, at the primary sensitive part (424a24; [555]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod hoc oportet accipere universaliter et communiter omni sensui inesse quod sensus est susceptivus specierum sine materia, sicut cera recipit signum anuli sine ferro et auro.
First, then, he says that it must be taken universally, and as commonly present in every sensation, that all sensation is the receiving of species without matter, just as wax receives the sign of the signet-ring without the iron or gold.
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Sed videtur hoc esse commune omni patienti: omne enim patiens recipit aliquid ab agente secundum quod est agens; agens autem agit per suam formam et non per suam materiam; omne igitur patiens recipit formam sine materia. Et hoc etiam ad sensum apparet: non enim aer recipit ab igne agente materiam eius, sed formam. Non <igitur> videtur hoc esse proprium sensus, quod sit receptivus specierum sine materia.
This, however, would seem to be common to all cases of being acted upon; for every patient receives from an agent insofar as the agent is acting; and since the agent acts through its form, not its matter, every patient receives the form without matter. And this indeed is sensibly apparent; for example, air does not receive matter from fire acting upon it, but form. So it would seem not to be peculiar to sensation that it receives species without matter.
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552. Dicendum est igitur quod, licet hoc sit commune omni patienti quod recipiat formam ab agente, differentia tamen est in modo recipiendi. Nam forma quae in patiente recipitur ab agente, quandoque quidem habet eumdem modum essendi in patiente quem habet in agente (et hoc quidem contingit quando patiens eamdem habet dispositionem ad formam quam habet et agens; unumquodque enim recipitur in altero secundum modum recipientis, unde si eodem modo disponatur patiens sicut agens, eodem modo recipitur forma in patiente sicut erat in agente), et tunc non recipitur forma sine materia, quia, licet illa et eadem materia numero quae est agentis non fiat patientis, fit tamen quodammodo eadem inquantum similem dispositionem materialem ad formam acquirit ei quae erat in agente; et hoc modo aer patitur ab igne, et quicquid patitur passione naturali.
552. I answer that, while it is true that every patient receives form from an agent, there are differences in the manner of receiving. For form received in a patient from an agent sometimes has the same mode of existence in the patient as it has in the agent; and this occurs when the patient has the same disposition to the form as the agent has. For whatever is received is received according to the manner of the receiver; so that, if the patient is disposed as the agent is, the form is received in the patient in the manner in which it exists in the agent. And then the form is not received without matter; for although it and numerically the same matter that is in the agent does not come to belong to the patient, nevertheless, the patient becomes, in a way, the same, inasmuch as it acquires the same material disposition to the form that was in the agent. And it is in this way that air is acted upon by fire, and in the same way is whatever else is acted upon with a natural passion.
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553. Quandoque vero forma recipitur in patiente secundum alium modum essendi quam sit in agente, quia dispositio materialis patientis ad recipiendum non est similis dispositioni materiali quae erat in agente, et ideo forma recipitur in patiente sine materia inquantum patiens assimilatur agenti secundum formam et non secundum materiam; et per hunc modum sensus recipit formam sine materia, quia alterius modi esse habet forma in sensu et in re sensibili: nam in re sensibili habet esse naturale, in sensu autem habet esse intentionale sive spirituale;
553. Sometimes, however, the form is received in the patient according to a manner of existence other than was in the agent, because the material disposition of the patient to receive form is not like the material disposition that was in the agent. In these cases, then, the form is received in the patient without matter, inasmuch as the patient is made like the agent according to form and not according to matter. And it is thus that a sense receives form without matter, the form having, in the sense, a different manner of being than that which it has in the sensible reality. For in the sensible reality it has a natural existence, but in the sense it has an intentional or spiritual existence.
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554. et ponit conveniens exemplum de sigillo et cera, non enim eadem est dispositio cerae ad imaginem, quae erat in ferro et auro.
554. Aristotle finds an apt example of this in the signet-ring and wax. For the disposition of the wax to the image is not the same as that of the iron or gold.
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Et ideo subiungit quod cera accipit signum, id est imaginem sive figuram auream aut aeneam, sed non inquantum est aurum aut aes: assimilatur enim cera aureo sigillo quantum ad imaginem, sed non quantum ad dispositionem auri. Et similiter sensus patitur a sensibili habente colorem aut humorem, id est saporem, aut sonum, sed non inquantum unumquodque illorum dicitur, id est non patitur a lapide colorato inquantum est lapis nec a melle dulci inquantum est mel, quia in sensu non fit similis dispositio ad formam, quae erat in illis subiectis, sed patitur ab eis inquantum huiusmodi, id est inquantum coloratum vel saporosum, et secundum rationem, id est secundum formam: assimilatur enim sensus sensibili secundum formam, sed non secundum dispositionem materiae.
Hence, wax, he says, receives the sign (424a20), that is, a shape or image of what is gold or bronze, but not insofar as it is gold or bronze. For the wax becomes like the gold signet-ring in respect of its image, but not in respect of the disposition of gold. Similarly, the sense is acted upon by the sense-object by a thing having color or flavor (that is, taste) or sound, not, however, in respect of what each is called as a particular thing, that is, it is not acted upon by a colored stone precisely as stone, or by sweet honey precisely as honey, because in the sense there arises no similar disposition to the form that was present in those subjects; but it is acted upon by them insofar as each is of a certain sort, that is, insofar as it is colored or tasteable, and according to its account, that is, according to form. For the sense is assimilated to the sensible object according to form, not according to the disposition of matter.
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555. Deinde cum dicit: sensitivum autem etc., determinat de organo sensus; quia enim dixerat quod sensus est susceptivus specierum sine materia, quod etiam intellectui convenit, posset aliquis credere quod sensus non esset potentia in corpore sicut nec intellectus, et ideo ad hoc excludendum assignat ei organum. Et dicit quod primum sensitivum, id est primum organum sensus, est in quo est potentia huiusmodi, quae scilicet est susceptiva specierum sine materia. Organum igitur sensus cum potentia ipsa, utputa oculus, est idem subiecto, sed esse alterum est, quia ratione differt a corpore potentia; potentia enim est quasi forma organi, ut supra habitum est. Et ideo subdit quod magnitudo, id est organum corporeum, est quod sensum patitur, id est quod est susceptivum sensus sicut materia formae, non tamen est eadem ratio magnitudinis et sensitivi seu sensus, sed sensus est quaedam ratio, id est proportio et forma, et potentia illius, scilicet magnitudinis.
555. Next, at the primary sensitive part (424a24), he concludes about the organ of sense. Since from his teaching that sense receives species without matter—which is true of the intellect also—one might be led to suppose that sense was not a power in a body, like the intellect, to preclude this error, Aristotle assigns to sense an organ, observing that the primary sensitive part, that is, the first organ of sense, is that in which a power of this sort resides, namely a capacity to receive species without matter. For a sense organ, for example, the eye, shares the same subject with the power itself, but they differ in mode of being, because the power differs from the body in its account, for the power is, as it were, the form of the organ, as was said above.1 So he goes on to say a magnitude, that is, a bodily organ, is what is acted upon in sensation, that is, is the receptive subject of the sense power, as matter of form; but the magnitude and the sensitivity or sense differ by account, the sense being a certain ratio, that is, proportion and form, and a power of that magnitude.
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556. Deinde cum dicit: manifestum autem ex his etc., ex praemissis concludit solutionem duorum quae possent quaeri.
556. Then, when he says, it is clear (424a28), he infers from these premises a reply to two questions that might arise.
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Et dicit quod manifestum est ex praedictis propter quid excellentia sensibilium corrumpunt organa sensuum: oportet enim in organis sentiendi ad hoc quod sentiatur esse quamdam rationem, id est proportionem, ut dictum est; si ergo motus sensibilis fuerit fortior quam organum natum sit pati, solvitur proportio et corrumpitur sensus, qui consistit in quadam proportione organi, ut dictum est; et est simile sicut cum aliquis fortiter percutit chordas, solvitur symphonia et tonus instrumenti, qui in quadam proportione consistit.
From what has been said, he observes, it is clear why an excess in the object destroys the organs of sense; for, if sensation is to take place there must preexist in the organs of sense a certain ratio, that is, a proportion, as was said. But if the motion of the sense-object is stronger than what the organ is naturally able to bear, the proportion is lost and the sense itself, which consists, as has been said, in a certain proportion of the organ, is corrupted. It is as though one were to twang cords violently, destroying the tone and harmony of the instrument, which consists in a certain proportion.
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557. Et manifestum est etiam ex praedictis ratio alterius quaestionis, propter quid scilicet plantae non sentiunt, cum tamen habeant quamdam partem animae et patiantur a quibusdam sensibilibus, scilicet a tangibilibus (manifestum est enim quod calescunt et infrigidantur); causa igitur quare non sentiunt est quia non est in illis illa proportio quae requiritur ad sentiendum: non enim habent medietatem secundum complexionem inter tangibilia, quod requiritur ad organum tactus sine quo nullus sensus esse potest; et ideo non habent in se huiusmodi principium quod potest recipere speciem sine materia, scilicet sensum, sed accidit eis pati cum materia, scilicet secundum materialem transmutationem.
557. His analysis also gives us the answer to another question, namely, why plants do not sense, though they have some share in soul and are acted upon by certain sensible objects, that is, tangible things (for it is manifest that they heat up and cool down). The reason why they do not feel is that they lack the proportion needed for sensation; in particular, they do not have that mediate state in complexion between the tangible qualities, which is a prerequisite of the organ of touch, apart from which there can be no sensation. Hence, they have no intrinsic principle of the sort that can receive a species without matter, that is to say, no sense. But they are acted upon with matter, that is, according to a material change.
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558. Deinde cum dicit: dubitabit autem aliquis etc., movet quamdam dubitationem circa passionem a sensibilibus, quia dixerat quod plantae patiuntur a tangibilibus. Movet igitur primo dubitationem, utrum ab aliis sensibilibus aliquid possit pati quod non habet sensum, puta ab odore quod non habet olfactum, a colore quod non habet visum, a sono quod non habet auditum.
558. Next, when he says, it might be asked (424b3), he raises a question about the sense-object’s action on the senses, because he said that plants are acted upon by tangibles. He raises the question whether a subject can ever be acted upon by objects other than those of which it possesses the sense, for example, by odor if it cannot have the sense of smell, or by color, if it has no sight, or by sound, if it is without hearing.
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559. Secundo ibi: si autem olfactus etc., inducit duas rationes ad ostendendum quod non.
559. Then, at but if what can be smelled is odor (424b5), he brings two reasons against this suggestion.
DeAn.L24
Quarum prima est quod proprium olfactibilis est facere olfactum; odor autem est olfactibile; ergo, si aliquid facit, facit olfactum; quod ergo non habet sensum olfactus, non potest pati ab odore. Et eadem ratio videtur esse de aliis, quod non sit quorumcumque posse pati a sensibilibus, sed solum habentium sensum.
In the first place, it is proper to what can be smelled to cause smell, whereas odor is such, so if anything causes smell, it causes it by odor. Whence it follows that whatever lacks a sense of smell cannot be acted upon by odor. And the same argument holds for the other senses, that it is impossible that anything whatever might be acted upon by sense-objects; this can only happen in things endowed with sense.
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560. Secundam rationem ponit ibi: simul autem manifestum etc. Et dicit quod hoc idem quod prima ratio concludit manifestum est per experimentum, quia lumen et tenebra, odor et sonus nullum effectum faciunt <in corpora> insensibilia, nisi forte per accidens, inquantum corpora habentia huiusmodi qualitates aliquid agunt, sicut aer qui, quando est tonitruum, scindit lignum: lignum igitur patitur non a sono per se loquendo, sed ab aere moto.
560. At the same is evident thus (424b9), he states the second reason, as follows. The above argument is confirmed by experience. For light and darkness, smell and sound, produce no effect on bodies without sensation, except accidentally, inasmuch as the bodies with those qualities do something, like the air that smashes trees when it thunders; therefore the tree is acted upon not by the sound, properly speaking, but rather by the moving air.
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561. Tertio ibi: sed tangibilia etc., ostendit aliter esse de qualitatibus tangibilibus. Et dicit quod tangibilia et humores, id est sapores, faciunt quemdam effectum <in> insensibilibus (sed hoc intelligendum est de saporibus non inquantum sunt sapores, sed inquantum gustabile est quoddam tangibile et gustus quidam tactus): si enim corpora insensibilia non patiuntur a tangibilibus, non esset ponere a quo paterentur et alterarentur inanimata. Nam tangibilia sunt qualitates activae et passivae elementorum secundum quas accidit universaliter alteratio in corporibus.
561. Then, at but things tangible and savors (424b12), he shows that it is otherwise with tangible qualities; tangible things and savors, that is, flavors, do so have an effect on things without sensation. (But this is to be understood of the flavors not as such, but just insofar as the tasteable is something tangible, and taste a sort of touch.) For if insensitive things were not acted upon by tangible qualities, there would be no question of non-souled things being acted upon and altered at all, these tangibles being the active and passive qualities of the elements in virtue of which all bodily alterations take place.
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562. Quarto ibi: ergone et illa etc., ostendit quod etiam alia sensibilia agunt in quasdam res inanimatas, licet non in omnes, dicens: ergone et illa, scilicet sensibilia etiam alia, faciunt aliquem effectum in res inanimatas? Quasi dicat: sic. Sed tamen non omne corpus passivum est ab odore et sono, sicut omne corpus passivum est a calore et frigore, sed ab istis sensibilibus pati possunt solum corpora indeterminata et quae non manent, ut aer et aqua, quae sunt humida et non bene terminabilia termino proprio; et quod aer possit pati ab odore, manifestum est quia aer fetet sicut patiens aliquid ab odore. Alia litera habet: “feret,” quia videlicet media in aliis sensibilibus deferunt species ad sensum. Ratio autem huius diversitatis est quia qualitates tangibiles sunt causae aliorum sensibilium et ideo habent plus de virtute activa et possunt agere in quaecumque corpora, sed alia sensibilia, quae habent minus de virtute activa, non possunt agere nisi in corpora valde passibilia; et similis etiam ratio est de luce corporum caelestium, quae alterat inferiora corpora.
562. Next, at but not every body (424b14), he shows that other sense-objects act on non-souled things, though not on all. For, in asking, therefore, do not other sense-objects have a like effect on non-souled things as odor does? he implies that they do. Yet not every body is acted upon by odor and sound, though all are by heat and cold. But such sense-objects are acted upon only by unstable, indeterminate bodies, like air and water, which, being fluid, are not very self-contained; and that air can be acted upon by odor is obvious enough since it can stink. Another reading for “stink” (fetet) says “bears” (feret), meaning that the species is borne to the other senses by the medium for the sake of sensation. The reason for this difference is that, as tangible qualities are causes of the other sense-objects, they have more of an active power and can act on all bodies whatsoever, whereas the other sense-objects, having less of an active power, can act only on things that are especially impressionable. The same account applies to the luminosity of the heavenly bodies, which alter lower bodies.
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563. Quinto ibi: quid igitur est odorare etc., solvit rationem supra positam, dicens: si quid aliquid patitur ab odore quod non odorat, quid est odorare, nisi pati aliquid ab odore? Et respondet quod odorare est sic aliquid pati ab odore quod sentiat odorem, aer autem non sic patitur ut sentiat, quia non habet potentiam sensitivam, sed sic patitur ut sit sensibilis, inquantum scilicet est medium in sensu.
563. Lastly, at what, then, is it to smell (424b16), he solves the problem raised by the argument stated above. If a thing, he asks, can be acted upon by odor and yet not smell it, what is it to smell other than to be acted upon by the smell? And he answers that smelling happens when a thing is acted upon by odor in such a way as to sense it. But air is not acted upon in this way, nor does it sense it, since it has no sensitive potency; rather, it is acted upon only so as to become a sense-object, inasmuch as it is a medium for sensation.
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L. 25 (Γ.1, 424b22–425b11)The common sense-objects and whether there is a sixth sense
Praeter quinque sensus externos, nullum esse alium sensum extrinsecum animalibus necessarium ostendit
The common sense-objects and whether there is a sixth sense
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Quod autem non sit sensus alter praeter quinque (dico autem hos visum, auditum, olfactum, gustum, tactum), ex his credet aliquis.
That there is no other sense besides the five enumerated—I mean, sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch—anyone may believe from these things.
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Si enim omnis cuius est sensus tactus et nunc sensum habemus (omnes enim tangibilis inquantum tangibile passiones tactu nobis sensibiles sunt), necesseque, si quidem deficit aliquis sensus, et organum aliquod nobis deficere.
For if we have sensation of all the objects of the sense of touch (all varieties of the tangible being in fact sensible to us through touch), then, if we lack some sense, we must be lacking also in some sense organ.
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Et quaecumque quidem ipsi tangentes sentimus, tactu sensibilia sunt, quem existimus habentes; quaecumque vero per media et non ipsa tangentes, simplicibus, dico autem ut aere et aqua, habet autem sic ut, si quidem per unum plura sensibilia existentia altera ab invicem genere, necesse habentem huiusmodi sensitivum utrorumque sensitivum esse (ut si ex aere est sensitivum, et est aer soni et coloris),
Now, whatever we sense by contact is sensible to us through that sense of touch, which we do in fact possess. But whatever we sense through a medium and without contact is sensed through intervening simple things (I mean, for example, air and water); and in this case, things are so disposed that if several sense-objects, differing generically from one another, are perceptible through one thing, then, necessarily, what has a sense organ of this kind can perceive either object—e.g., if the organ is constituted of air, then air is the medium for both color and sound.
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si vero plura eiusdem sint, ut coloris et aer et aqua (utraque enim dyaphana), et quod alterum ipsorum est habens solum sentiet id quod per utraque aut quod ab ambobus.
But if several work for the same thing (like both air and water for color, for both are transparent), then what has either of these will sense what is transmitted through each or by both.
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Simplicium autem ex duobus his sensitiva solum sunt, ex aere et aqua (pupilla quidem enim aquae, auditus vero aeris, olfactus autem horum alterius est), ignis autem aut nullius est aut communis omnibus (nihil enim sine calore sensitivum est), terra vero aut nullius est aut in tactu maxime miscetur, unde relinquitur nullum esse sensitivum extra aerem et aquam; haec autem et nunc quaedam habent animalia; omnes igitur sensus habentur a non imperfectis neque orbatis (videtur enim et talpa sub pelle habens oculos). Quare, si non aliquod alterum est corpus, et passio que nullius est eorum quae sunt hic corporum, neque unus utique deficiet sensus.
Now, the sense organs are formed of these two simple bodies only, air and water. For the pupil is of water; the organ of hearing, of air; and smell, of either. But fire either is found in none or is common to all, for nothing without heat is sensitive. Earth either belongs to none or is especially involved in touch. Whence it remains that there is no sense organ without air and water. Now, certain animals do in fact possess these organs. All the senses, therefore, are found in animals neither incomplete nor defective (for even the mole is observed to have eyes beneath its skin). Therefore, if there is no other kind of body and no qualities other than those of the bodies here present, no sense will be missing.
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At vero neque communium potest esse sensitivum aliquod proprium, quae unoquoque sensu sentimus non secundum accidens, ut motus, status, figurae, magnitudinis, numeri, unius.
But there cannot be a sense proper to the common things that we sense by each sense not accidentally: for example, movement, rest, shape, magnitude, number, and unity.
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Haec enim omnia motu sentimus, ut magnitudinem motu; quare et figuram: magnitudo enim quaedam et figura est;
For we sense all these by motion: that is, we know magnitude by movement, and from magnitude, shape as well; for a shape is also a magnitude.
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quiescens autem in eo quod non movetur; numerus vero negatione continui et propriis; unusquisque enim unum sentit sensus. Quare manifestum est quoniam impossibile est cuiuslibet proprium sensum esse horum.
What is at rest is sensed as not moving, and number as the negation of the continuous and its properties. For each sense senses one thing. Whence it is manifest that it is impossible that there should be any proper sense for any of these.
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Sic enim erit sicut nunc visu dulce sentimus: hoc autem est quoniam amborum habentes existimus sensum, quo cum conciderint cognoscimus; si vero non, nequaquam utique, sed aut secundum accidens sentiebamus (ut Cleonis filium, non quia Cleonis filius est, sed quoniam albus, huic autem accidit filium Cleonis esse); communium autem habemus iam sensum communem non secundum accidens; non igitur est proprius; nequaquam enim utique sentiremus sed aut sic sicut dictum est Cleonis filium nos videre.
The situation would, in that case, be as when we sense what is sweet by sight. This happens because the sensation of both is present in us, whereby when they coincide we are aware of it. If it were not so, we should sense this only accidentally, as when we see the son of Cleon not as the son of Cleon but as something white, which object happens to be the son of Cleon. But we already have a common sense of the common things, and this not merely accidentally. Hence, there is not a proper sense for them. If there were, we should never sense them except in the way we have said that we see the son of Cleon.
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Ad invicem enim propria secundum accidens sentiunt sensus, non secundum quod ipsi sunt, sed secundum quod unus, cum simul fiat sensus, in eodem, ut colera quod amara et rubicunda: non enim alterius dicere quod ambo unum; propter quod et decipitur, quod si sit rubicundum, coleram opinatur esse.
For the senses sense accidentally what is proper to each other, not in virtue of their very selves, but insofar as they are one when the sensation arises together in the same thing—as in the perception of bile as both red and bitter. For it does not pertain to either sense to say that these are one. Hence too one is deceived in thinking that if a thing is red, it is bile.
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Inquiret autem aliquis cuius causa plures habemus sensus, sed et non unum solum. Aut quatinus minus lateant consequentia et communia, ut motus et magnitudo et numerus: si enim esset visus solus et ipse albi, laterent utique magis et viderentur esse idem omnia propter id quod consecuntur se ad invicem simul color et magnitudo.
One might ask why we have several senses and not one only. Is it in order that the consequent and common things should be less hidden—for example, movement, magnitude, and number? For if there were no sense but sight alone, and that only of white as an object, these things would certainly be very hidden, and all things would appear alike because color and magnitude always accompany each other.
DeAn.L25
Nunc autem quoniam in altero sensibili communia sunt, manifestum facit quod aliud quiddam unumquodque ipsorum est.
But the fact that the common things are attained by diverse sense powers makes it evident that each of them is a distinct object.
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564. Quod autem non sit sensus <alter> praeter quinque. Apud Graecos hic incipit tertius liber, et satis rationabiliter: ex hinc enim Aristoteles ad inquirendum de intellectu accedit;
564. That there is no other sense (424b22). Here begins book 3 in the Greek text,1 for the good reason, apparently, that it is here that Aristotle begins to examine the intellect.
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fuerunt enim aliqui qui posuerunt sensum et intellectum idem esse; manifestum est autem quod intellectus non est aliquis de sensibus exterioribus de quibus dictum est, quia non coartatur ad unum genus sensibilium cognoscendum; unde restat inquisitio utrum in parte sensitiva sit aliqua alia cognoscitiva potentia, ut ex hoc possit accipi utrum intellectus sit aliquo modo sensus.
For there have been some who have asserted that sensation and intellect are the same thing. But clearly the intellect cannot be any one of the exterior senses already considered,1 for its apprehension is not restricted to any one particular genus of sense-objects. So the remaining question is whether sensitivity includes any other cognitive power such as might lend support to the view that intellect is somehow one of the senses.
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565. Dividitur ergo pars ista in partes tres:
565. This section divides into three parts.
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in prima inquirit an sit alius sensus praeter quinque sensus exteriores de quibus iam dictum est;
First, he asks whether there is any other sense besides the five exterior senses already treated.
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in secunda ostendit quod intellectus et sensus nullo modo sint idem, ibi: quoniam autem duabus etc.;
Second, at now, if the soul is defined (427a17; [616]), he proves that the intellect is entirely distinct from the senses.
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in tertia, ostenso quod intellectus non est sensus, determinat de parte animae intellectiva, ibi: de parte autem animae etc.
Third, at as to the part of the soul (429a10; [672]), he examines the intellectual part of the soul, having already clearly distinguished it from the senses.
DeAn.L25
Prima dividitur in duas:
The first of these sections has two parts:
DeAn.L25
in prima ostendit quod non est alius sensus proprius praeter quinque iam dictos;
first, he shows that there are no other proper senses besides the five exterior ones;
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in secunda ostendit praeter sensus proprios esse sensum communem, ibi: quoniam autem sentimus etc.
second, he shows that, besides these, there is a common sense, at since, however, we do sense that we see (425b12; [584]).
DeAn.L25
Circa primum duo facit:
With regard to the first, he does two things:
DeAn.L25
primo ostendit quod non sit alius sensus praeter quinque;
first, he shows that there are only five particular senses;
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secundo ostendit quare sunt plures et non unus tantum, ibi: inquirit autem aliquis etc.
second, he shows why there are several of them and not one only, at one might ask (425b4; [582]).
DeAn.L25
Circa primum duo facit:
The former proof itself divides into two:
DeAn.L25
Primo ostendit quod non sit alius sensus praeter quinque qui sit cognoscitivus sensibilium propriorum;
first, he shows that only the five senses apprehend their proper sensibles;
DeAn.L25
secundo ostendit quod non sit alius sensus praeter quinque cuius obiectum sint sensibilia communia, ibi: at vero neque communium etc.
second, at but there cannot be (425a13; [575]), he shows that the same five are the only senses whose object is the common sensibles.
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566. Circa primum utitur tali ratione: quicumque habet aliquod organum sensus per quod nata sunt cognosci aliqua sensibilia, cognoscit omnia sensibilia quae nata sunt per illud organum; sed animalia perfecta habent omnia organa sensus; ergo cognoscunt omnia sensibilia; cum igitur non habeant nisi quinque sensus, non erit alius sensus respectu propriorum sensibilium praeter quinque.
566. To prove the first of these two points, he argues thus. If someone has a sense organ in virtue of which he is naturally apt to know certain sensible objects, this organ knows all the sensible objects which are naturally suited by that organ. But the complete animals have all the organs of sense; therefore, they can know all sensible objects; and therefore, as these organs are only five in number, there will be no other sense than the five relative to the proper sensible objects.
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567. Circa autem hanc rationem hoc modo procedit: Primo proponit quod intendit, dicens quod ex his quae sequuntur potest aliquis sufficienter moveri ad credendum quod non sit alius sensus praeter quinque iam dictos.
567. In proposing this argument, Aristotle proceeds in this way: he first states his purpose in using it, that is, that from these things that follow, anybody may be sufficiently moved to believe that there are no other senses besides the five enumerated (424b22).
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568. Secundo, ibi: si enim omnis etc., manifestat primam propositionem rationis inductae, scilicet hanc quod animal habens aliquod organum sensus cognoscit omnia sensibilia quae possunt sentiri per illud organum. Et hoc quidem manifestat in sensu tactus, eo quod manifestum est quot sunt qualitates tangibiles: dictum enim est supra quod qualitates tangibiles sunt differentiae corporis elementati inquantum huiusmodi, quae quidem manifestae sunt ex his quae determinata sunt ex elementis; unde nobis manifestum potest esse quod nos sentimus omnes qualitates tangibiles;
568. Second, at for if (424b24), he explains the major premise of the argument: that an animal possessed of any sense organ can know all that can be sensed by that organ. This he shows from the sense of touch, inasmuch as it is manifest how many tangible qualities exist; for it was said above that tangible qualities are the differences of the bodies made from elements as such, and these become manifest based on things that have been determined by the elements.1 Whence it can be manifested to us that we ourselves sense all the tangible qualities.
DeAn.L25
569. et ex hoc concludit per simile in aliis quod, si habemus aliquod organum, quod habeamus sensum illorum sensibilium quae nata sunt cognosci per illud organum. Hoc est ergo quod dicit quod, si nos habemus sensum omnis sensibilis cuius tactus est perceptivus (quod ex hoc apparet quod omnes passiones tangibiles inquantum huiusmodi a nobis sentiuntur), necesse est universaliter dicere quod, si deficit nobis aliquis sensus aliquorum sensibilium, quod deficiat nobis aliquod organum quo nata sunt cognosci illa sensibilia, quia, si haberemus organum, cognosceremus sensibilia. Et hoc quidem, quia universaliter dictum est, manifestat exemplificando per singula;
569. He then applies the same principle—that we are aware of precisely such objects as correspond to a given sense organ in us—to the other senses. So he says: if we have sensation of all the objects of the sense of touch (which is apparent from the fact that all the tangible passions are sensed by us), then it must be said universally that, if we lack some sensation of a sensible quality, the reason must be that we lack the sense organ that is naturally apt to know that sensible, precisely because if we should have the sense organ, we would know the sensible qualities. And this, because it is being said universally, he then supports with particular examples.
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570. et primo quantum ad ea quae cognoscuntur absque medio extraneo, et hoc est quod dicit quod quaecumque nos sentimus tangentes, id est absque medio extraneo, possunt sentiri per organum tactus quem habemus; sed circa illa sensibilia quae sentimus per media extranea quae sunt simplicia corpora, scilicet aer et aqua, et non sentimus ea tangendo ipsa, sic se habet ut dicam videlicet quod, si per unum organum plura sensibilia diversa genere ad invicem sentiri possunt, necesse est quod qui habet huiusmodi organum sentiat utrumque genus
570. And first, with respect to things we apprehend without any extrinsic medium; for he says that whatever we sense by contact, that is, without an extrinsic medium, is reached by the organ of touch (which we have). But where, as in the other senses, certain extrinsic media that are simple bodies, like air and water, come between us and the object, and without touching it, if several sense-objects, differing generically from one another, are perceptible through one organ, then, necessarily, that which has an organ of this kind senses each genus of object;
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(puta, quod si aliquod organum est ex aere, et aer potest immutari a colore et sono, sequitur quod qui habet huiusmodi organum, potest et sonum et colorem percipere), si vero e converso plura organa sint susceptiva eiusdem sensibilis, sicut aer et aqua (quorum utrumque est diaphanum) sunt perceptiva coloris, sequitur quod animal habens alterum horum potest percipere quod est perceptibile per utraque, sicut per media, aut ab ambobus, sicut ab instrumentis (quod ideo dicit quia in sensibus qui sentiunt per medium extraneum organa sunt conformia mediis); has autem conditiones ideo apposuit quia idem sensibile sentitur ab aliquo animali per aquam et ab aliquo per aerem, sicut patet de odore.
For example, if a sense organ is constituted of air, and air can be modified by both color and sound, then what has such an organ will be able to perceive both color and sound. If, on the contrary, several different organs are receptive of the same sensible object—as happens in the case of organs composed, the one of air, the other of water, which are both transparent and therefore both receptive of color—then an animal with either of such organs is able to perceive whatever is perceptible through each, as through media, or by both, as by instruments. The reason for his saying this is that the senses that sense through an extrinsic medium share the form of their media; and he adds these conditions because the same sensible object, for instance, odor, is sensed both by one animal through water and by another through air.
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571. Tertio ibi: simplicium autem etc., ponit secundam propositionem cum sua manifestatione, scilicet quod omnia organa sentiendi habentur ab animalibus perfectis. Dicit ergo quod organa sentiendi nata sunt constare ex solis duobus simplicium corporum, scilicet ex aere et aqua, quia ista sunt magis passibilia et hoc requirit conditio organi sensus ut facile immutetur a sensibili (in pupilla enim est aqua, quia per humorem aqueum in pupilla existentem recipit oculus speciem visibilis; organo autem auditus est aer, ut supra dictum est: olfactus autem in quibusdam attribuitur aeri, in quibusdam aquae, ut supra dictum est); ignis autem secundum se nullius sensus organum est, quia ignis est maxime activus et minime passivus, sed secundum participationem suae qualitatis est communis omnibus sensibus (nihil enim est sensitivum sine calore, cum nihil sentiat non vivens);
571. Third, at now, the sense organs are formed (425a3), he makes and explains a further statement: that the complete animals possess all the organs of sense. These organs, he says, are by nature composed of only two of the simple bodies, namely air and water, these being the two most passive simple bodies, and the condition of the sense organ requires this so that it may be easily modified by the sense-object. For the pupil of the eye contains water, since through the aqueous humor within the eye, the eye receives the species of the visible object; likewise, the organ of hearing contains air (as we have noted already);1 the sense of smell is related by some to air and by some to water.2 Fire, on the other hand, by reason of its extreme activity and minimal passivity, in itself is found in none of the sense organs, though in virtue of a participation in its own quality it is common to all the senses; for nothing without heat is sensitive, because nothing senses without life.
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572. terra vero pura nullius sensus est organum, sed per commixtionem maxime appropriatur tactui, quia organum tactus oportet esse mediae complexionatum, ut supra dictum est, et per consequens oportet quod sit compositum ex omnibus elementis;
572. Earth either belongs to none of the sense organs, or, through its entering into composition, it is especially appropriated to touch; for the organ of touch must be of an intermediate composition, as was said above, and consequently it must be composed of all the elements.1
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unde relinquitur quod nullum organum sensus est praeter aerem et aquam; haec autem organa aeris et aquae habent quaedam animalia, scilicet animalia perfecta; unde concludit quod omnes sensus habentur ab animalibus non imperfectis secundum suam naturam, sicut sunt imperfecta animalia immobilia quae habent solum tactum,
Whence it remains that there is no organ of sense beside those of air and water; and certain animals, that is, the complete animals, have these organs of air and water. So he concludes by saying that all the senses are found in animals that are not incomplete according to their own nature, such as the incomplete immobile animals that have only the sense of touch.
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573. et animalibus non orbatis, id est non carentibus aliquo sensu ex aliqua causa innaturali, sicut homines caeci vel surdi (unde et talpa, quae est de genere animalium perfectorum, videtur habere oculos sub pelle, ut assimiletur suo generi, sed propter hoc quod conversatur sub terra non fuit ei necessarius visus, et terra, si haberet oculos discoopertos, eius oculos offenderet).
573. These stand apart, too, from the defective, that is, defective animals, lacking a sense due to some non-natural cause, like blind or deaf men. But the mole, for example, which belongs to the genus of complete animals, is observed to have eyes beneath its skin; thereby it is like its own genus. But due to its living underground, it does not need sight; and if its eyes were uncovered, the soil would aggravate them.
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574. Procedit autem haec ratio, ut manifeste apparet, ex determinato numero elementorum, ex quo probavit quod organa sensuum qui sunt per media exteriora fiunt per aerem et aquam tantum, et iterum ex determinatione passionum elementorum, quae sunt qualitates tangibiles, unde per eas fit notum quod omnes qualitates tangibiles cognoscimus;
574. Clearly this argument assumes a determinate number of elements. From this it follows that the sense organs that reach their objects through an exterior medium must be composed exclusively of air and water. Again, it presumes a fixed number of elemental qualities, which are the tangible qualities; whence, through them it becomes known that we know all the tangible qualities.
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et ideo concludit quod nullus sensus deficit nobis, nisi aliquis dicere velit quod sit aliquod corpus elementare praeter quatuor elementa et quod sint aliae passione quae possunt tactu discerni quae non sunt alicuius corporum hic existentium et nobis notorum, et hoc videtur inconveniens; unde relinquitur quod sint tantum quinque sensus, qui a nobis habentur.
Therefore he concludes that we are missing no sense—unless someone wants to say that there is some elementary body besides the four elements, and that there are other passions that can be discerned by touch that do not belong to the bodies around us and known to us. And that seems incongruous. Whence what is left is that there are only the five senses that we have.
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575. Deinde cum dicit: at vero neque communium etc., quia posset aliquis dicere quod est aliquis alius sensus cognoscitivus sensibilium communium, excludit hoc tali ratione: quicquid cognoscitur ab uno sensu ut proprium sensibile eius non cognoscitur ab aliis sensibus nisi per accidens; sed sensibilia communia non sentiuntur per accidens ab aliquo sensuum, sed per se a pluribus; sensibilia igitur communia non sunt propria obiecta alicuius sensus.
575. Then, where he says, but there cannot be (425a13), he rejects the suggestion that the common sensibles are the object of another and distinct sense. For the proper sense-object of any one sense is only known accidentally by any other sense; but the common sensibles are not sensed accidentally by any sense at all; rather, they are each known through themselves by several senses. Therefore they cannot be the proper objects of any one sense.
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576. Circa hanc rationem hoc modo procedit:
576. Note how this argument proceeds.
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Primo ponit conclusionem, dicens quod non potest esse aliquod proprium organum sensus cognoscitivum communium sensibilium quae sentimus unoquoque sensu per se et non per accidens, quae sunt motus, status, etc.
Aristotle first states the conclusion, that there cannot be a proper sense organ adapted to know of the common sense-objects, which we sense by means of each sense through themselves, not accidentally, namely, movement, rest and so forth.
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577. Secundo ibi: haec enim omnia etc., probat quod ista sensibilia communia sentiantur per se et non secundum accidens: quaecumque enim sentiuntur per hoc quod immutant sensum, sentiuntur per se et non secundum accidens (nam hoc est sentire, pati aliquid a sensibili); sed omnia haec sensibilia communia per immutationem quamdam cognoscuntur. Et hoc est quod dicit quod haec omnia sentimus motu, id est quadam immutatione; manifestum est enim quod magnitudo immutat sensum, cum sit subiectum qualitatis sensibilis, puta coloris aut saporis, et qualitates non agunt sine suis subiectis; ex quo apparet quod etiam figuram cognoscimus cum quadam immutatione, quia figura est aliquid magnitudinis, quia consistit in terminatione magnitudinis (est enim figura quae termino vel terminis continetur, ut dicitur in I Euclidis);
577. Then, at for we sense (425a16), he shows that these common sensibles are sensed through themselves, and not accidentally. For what is sensed precisely by modifying the sense is sensed through itself, not accidentally; for to sense in itself is simply to undergo something from the sensible object. Now, all these common sensibles are known through a certain modification, which is why he says that we sense all these by motion, that is, by a certain modification. For magnitude obviously modifies the sense, since it is the subject of a sensible quality, like color or flavor, and no quality is able to act in separation from its subject. From which it is apparent that shape also is known through a certain modification, for shape belongs to magnitude, since it consists in the boundary of magnitude. As Euclid says, shape is what is contained in a limit.1
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578. manifestum est etiam quod quies comprehenditur ex motu, sicut et tenebra per lucem: est enim quies privatio motus; numerus vero cognoscitur per negationem continui, quod est magnitudo (numerus enim rerum sensibilium ex divisione continui causatur), unde et proprietates numeri per proprietates continui cognoscuntur (quia enim continuum divisibile est in infinitum, et numerus in infinitum crescere potest, ut ex III Physicorum patet); manifestum est etiam quod unusquisque sensus per se cognoscit unum, ut immutatus ab uno obiecto; unde manifestum est quod ista sensibilia communia sentiuntur per se et non per accidens. Ex hoc concludit quod impossibile est esse proprium sensum alicuius horum.
578. Rest also is perceived by means of movement, as darkness by means of light, for rest is the privation of motion. And number is known through negation of the continuous, which is a magnitude (for the number of sensible things is caused by the division of the continuous); whence also the properties of number are known through the properties of the continuous (for as the continuous is infinitely divisible, numbers can also grow to infinity, as is shown in Physics 3).1 It is also clear that through itself each sense knows one thing, so that it might be modified by one object; whence it is clear that these common sensibles are sensed through themselves, and not accidentally. From that he concludes that it is impossible that there should be any proper sense for any of these.
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579. Tertio ibi: sic enim erit etc., ostendit quod, si sentirentur proprie ab aliquo sensu, quod essent sensibilia per accidens. Et hoc est quod dicit quod sic esset de sensibilibus communibus, si essent propria obiecta alicuius sensus, sicut nunc est quod visu sentimus dulce: hoc enim est quia nos habemus sensum utriusque, scilicet et albi et dulcis, et ideo, quando coincidunt in unum, illud quod est unius sensus cognoscitur per accidens ab alio;
579. Then, at the situation (425a21), he shows that if they were the object of any proper sense, they would be accidentally sensed. This is why he says that in that case, if the common sensibles were the proper objects of some sense, this would be as when we sense what is sweet by sight. For this happens because we have a sense for both of these (the sweet and the white); hence, when both are found in one thing, that which belongs to one sense is known accidentally by the other.
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580. si autem non sit sensibile ab aliquo sensu, nequaquam hoc erit quod sentiatur per accidens ex coincidentia duorum sensuum in idem, sed omnino secundum accidens sensibile est, ut supra dictum est (sicut filium Cleonis secundum accidens sentimus, non quia filius Cleonis est, sed quia albus, cui accidit esse filium Cleonis; hoc autem, scilicet esse filium Cleonis, non ita est sensibile visu per accidens quod sit aliquo alio sensu sensibile per se, sicut erat de dulci); communium autem sensibilium habemus sensum communem non secundum accidens, id est communia sensibilia communiter sentiuntur a diversis sensibus per se et non secundum accidens; unde sequitur quod non sit aliquis proprius sensus eorum, quia non sentiremus ea per se aliis sensibus, sed sentiremus ea per accidens sicut sentimus filium Cleonis.
580. But if an object is not sensible to a certain sense, it can never be sensed accidentally due to a coincidence of two senses in the same thing, but it must always, in every respect, be accidentally sensible, as was said.1 Thus we sense accidentally the son of Cleon not as the son of Cleon but as white, to which it is accidental that it is the son of Cleon. But being the son of Cleon is not (like sweetness) accidentally visible in such a way that it is sensible through itself to some other sense. On the other hand, we have a common sense of the common sensibles, and this not merely accidentally, that is, the common sensible objects are sensed commonly by the diverse senses through themselves, and not accidentally. It follows that there is not a proper sense for them; if there were, we would not sense them except accidentally, the way we sense Cleon’s son accidentally.
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581. Sensus enim sentiunt propria sensibilia ad invicem secundum accidens, ut puta visus sensibile auditus et e converso; non enim visus cognoscit sensibile auditus neque auditus sensibile visus secundum quod ipsi sunt, quia visus nihil patitur ab audibili nec auditus a visibili, sed secundum quod fit unus sensus, id est una sensatio secundum actum, ut ita loquamur, in eodem sensibili; et dico eumdem sensum secundum actum ex eo quod simul fit actio utriusque sensus respectu eiusdem sensibilis, sicut de cholera simul percipitur per gustum quod sit amara et per visum quod sit rubicunda et ideo statim ad aspectum rubicundi iudicamus aliquid esse amarum: non est autem aliquis alius sensus cuius proprium sit cognoscere quod album et amarum sunt unum (haec enim unitas non est nisi una per accidens et quod est per accidens non potest esse obiectum alicuius potentiae); et ideo, quia visus non percipit id quod est gustus nisi per accidens, frequenter in talibus decipitur sensus, et iudicamus quod, si aliquid sit rubeum, quod sit cholera.
581. The senses sense the proper sensible objects accidentally, as sight that of hearing, and vice versa. For sight does not know the audible, nor hearing the visible in virtue of their very selves (for the eye undergoes nothing from the audible, nor the ear from the visible), but both insofar as they become one sense, that is, one actual sensation, so that we may say thus, in the same sensible object. I call them the same sense in act due to the fact that the action of each sense occurs together in relation to the same sensible thing, as when bile is at once seen as red and tasted as bitter; so that as soon as we see that something is red we judge that it is bitter. But there is not some other sense to which it is proper to know that the red1 and the bitter are one, for this unity is quite accidental, and what is accidental cannot be the object of any special power. And because sight only accidentally perceives a flavor, the sense is often deceived, and we judge that because a certain thing is red, it is therefore bile.
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582. Deinde cum dicit: inquirit autem aliquis etc., inquirit causam pluralitatis sensuum; hoc autem est quoddam consequens speciem totam et in talibus assignanda est causa finalis, ut Aristoteles docet in ultimo De generatione animalium (secus autem est in accidentibus individui, quorum assignanda est ratio ex parte materiae vel agentis), unde et hic assignat causam finalem.
582. Then, at one might ask (425b4), he goes on to inquire why there are many senses. As this is a question about a species as a whole, it must be answered in terms of final causality (as he explains towards the end of On the Generation of Animals), not, like questions about individual peculiarities, in terms of material or efficient causality.1 So here he introduces the idea of final cause.
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Dicit ergo quod aliquis potest quaerere cuius causa habemus plures sensus, et non unum tantum. Et est responsio ad hoc, ut non lateant nos ea quae consequuntur ad sensibilia propria et sunt communia diversis sensibilibus, sicut motus et magnitudo et numerus: si enim esset solus sensus visus, cum ipse sit coloris tantum et color et magnitudo se consequantur quia simul cum colore immutatur sensus a magnitudine, non possemus discernere inter colorem et magnitudinem, sed viderentur esse idem. Sed nunc, quia magnitudo sentitur alio sensu quam visu, color autem non, hoc ipsum manifestat quod aliud est color et magnitudo; et simile est de aliis sensibilibus communibus.
The question might arise, he says, why we have several senses, and not only one; and he answers that it is so that such things as movement, magnitude, and number should not be hidden from us; these are things that follow on the proper sensible objects and are common to the diverse sense-objects. For if there were no sense but sight alone, whose proper object is only color, and color and magnitude follow on each other since along with the color the sense is modified by magnitude, we should never be able to distinguish between color and magnitude; they would appear alike. But the fact that magnitude is also sensed by a sense other than sight, while color is not, is enough to show us that magnitude and color are distinct. And the same holds good for the other common sensibles.
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583. Potest autem et haec ratio assignari distinctionis sensuum. Manifestum est enim quod, cum potentia dicatur ad obiectum, oportet quod secundum differentiam obiectorum diversificentur potentiae sensitivae; obiectum autem est sensibile prout est immutativum sensus; unde secundum diversa genera immutationum sensus a sensibili oportet esse diversos sensus.
583. To this one might add also the following argument for the distinction of the senses. Since every potency is spoken of in reference to its object, there must be a diversity of sensitive potencies according to the difference of the objects. But objects are sensible insofar as they can modify a sense; hence, to the different genera of such modifications of the senses due to the sensibles there must correspond a diversity of senses.
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Immutatur autem sensus a sensibili uno modo per contactum, et sic est sensus tactus, qui est discretivus eorum ex quibus constat animal, et sensus gustus, qui est perceptivus qualitatum quae designant convenientiam nutrimenti quo conservatur corpus animalis;
Now, one way in which the sense is modified by a sense-object is by contact, whence arise both the sense of touch, which discerns things that compose an animal, and the sense of taste, which is perceptive of qualities that indicate the suitability of nourishment for preserving an animal.
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alio modo immutatur sensus per medium extraneum et haec quidem immutatio aut est cum alteratione sensibilis, et sic odor immutat sensum cum aliqua resolutione odorabilis, aut cum aliquo motu locali, et sic immutat sonus, aut absque immutatione sensibilis sed per solam immutationem spiritualem medii et organi, et sic immutat color.
And another way a sense is modified is through an extraneous medium; and this modification involves either an alteration of the sensible object, as when an odor modifies the sense along with a disintegration of the thing smelled; or along with a certain local motion, as sound modifies it; or without any modification of the sensible object, but simply through a spiritual modification of the medium and the organ, such as is made by color.
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L. 26 (Γ.2, 425b12–426b8)Sensing sensation
Praeter visum, qui est proprius sensus, dari aliam potentiam eiusdem generis, quae est perceptiva actus visionis: ostendit deinde quod sensus et sensibile simul fiant et corrumpantur; corrumpi demum sensus ipsos excellentiis sensibilium probat
Sensing sensation
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Quoniam autem sentimus quod videmus et audimus, necesse est visu sentire quia videt aut altero.
Since, however, we do sense that we see and hear, we must sense that we see either by sight or by another sense.
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Si autem altero, aut ipso erit quia videt, aut altero. Si idem, erit visus et subiecti coloris;
And if by another sense, then either we see by this or by a different one. But if it is the same, one sense will bear on both sight and the subject of color.
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quare aut duo eiusdem erunt, aut idem eiusdem.
Hence, either there will be two senses for one object or one sense must be its own object.
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Amplius autem si et alter sit visus sensus, aut in infinitum procedet, aut aliquis ipse sui ipsius erit iudex; quare in primo hoc faciendum est.
Further, if the sense of sight itself is other, either there is a process to infinity, or there must be some sense that is judge of its very self; hence it is better to admit this in the first instance.
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Habet autem dubitationem. Si enim visu sentire videre est, videtur autem color aut habens hunc, si videbit aliquis quod est videns, et colorem habebit primum videns.
Here is a problem: if to sense by sight is to see, and color, or what possesses it, is what is seen, then if someone is seeing that he is seeing, the first thing seeing will have a color.
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Manifestum igitur quoniam non est unum visu sentire: et namque cum non videmus, visu discernimus et tenebras et lumen, sed non similiter.
It is clear, then, that to sense by sight has not only one meaning. For even when we are not seeing, it is by sight that we distinguish between light and dark, though not in the same way.
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Amplius autem et videns est tanquam coloratum est: sensitivum enim susceptivum est sensibilis sine materia unumquodque; unde abeuntibus sensibilibus insunt sensus et phantasiae quibus sentiunt. Sensibilis autem actus et sensus idem est et unus, esse autem ipsorum non idem; dico autem ut sonus secundum actum et auditus secundum actum: est enim auditum habentia non audire, et habens sonum non semper sonat, cum autem operetur possibile audire et sonet possibile sonare, tunc secundum actum auditus simul fit et secundum actum sonus, quorum dicet utique aliquis hoc quidem esse auditionem, hoc vero sonationem.
Moreover, that which sees is, in a way, colored; for each sensitive power is receptive of the sense-object without matter. Hence, in the absence of the sense-objects, there remain sensations and phantasms in the sense-powers by which we sense. The act of the sense-object and the sensation are one and the same; but these—I mean, for instance, sound in act or hearing in act—are not identical in their being. For it happens that what has hearing does not hear all the time, and what has sound is not always sounding. But when that which is able to hear is active, and that which is able to sound sounds, both hearing in act and sound in act arise simultaneously (of which two, one might call one hearing, the other sounding).
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Si igitur est motus et actio et passio in eo quod agitur, necesse est et sonum et auditum qui secundum actum in eo quod est secundum potentiam esse: activi enim et motivi actus in patiente fit; unde non necesse est movens moveri. Sonativi quidem igitur actus aut sonus sonatio est, auditivi autem aut auditus auditio est: dupliciter enim auditus et dupliciter sonus.
If, then, movement and action and passion are in that which is acted upon, it follows that sound and hearing in act reside in that which is these potentially. For the act of what moves or causes comes to be in what is acted upon; hence it is not necessary that what moves it be itself in motion. The act of the sound-producing or the sound is therefore the sounding, and the act of the hearing power or hearing is audition. For hearing and sounding are both twofold.
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Eadem autem ratio est et in aliis sensibus et sensibilibus: sicut enim actio et passio in patiente sed non in agente, sic et sensibilis actus et sensitivi in sensitivo est; sed in quibusdam quidem et nominatum est, ut sonatio et auditio, in quibusdam autem non nominatum est alterum; visio enim dicitur visus actus, quae vero est coloris non nominatum est, et gustativi gustus est, humoris autem non nominatum est.
And the same reasoning applies to the other senses and their objects. For as the action and the passion are in the recipient, not in the agent, so the act of the sense-object and of the sense power are in the sensitive power. However, whereas both are named in some cases (as sounding and hearing), in others, one or the other is nameless. Vision is the act of sight, but the act of color has no name; and tasting is the act of the tasting power, but the act of flavor has no name.
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Quoniam autem unus quidem est actus sensibilis et sensitivi, esse autem alterum est, necesse simul corrumpi et salvari sic dictum auditum et sonum, et humorem igitur et gustum et alia similiter, dicta autem secundum potentiam non necesse est.
Since the act of the sense-object and of the sense power is one and the same (though they are different in being), it is necessary that they pass away or remain simultaneously, as in the above-mentioned case of hearing and sounding; and, therefore, of taste and flavor and the rest. It is not, however, necessary to hold this of the potency.
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Sed priores physiologi hoc non bene dicebant, nihil opinantes neque album neque nigrum esse sine visu, neque humorem sine gustu. Sic quidem enim dicebant recte, sic autem non recte: dupliciter enim dicto sensu et sensibili, his quidem secundum potentiam, illis vero secundum actum, de his quidem accidit quod dictum est, sed in alteris non accidit; sed illi simpliciter dicebant de dictis non simpliciter.
But on this point the earlier natural philosophers did not speak well, holding that there was no black or white without sight, no flavor without taste. In one way, what they said was right; in another, wrong. Inasmuch as both the sense-object and the sense power exist in two ways, one in potency, the other in act, what they alleged applies to the latter, but not to the former. But they spoke simply about matters that are not simple.
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Si autem symphonia vox quaedam est, vox autem et auditus est sicut unum et est sicut non unum aut idem, proportio autem est symphonia, necesse est et auditum rationem quandam esse. Et propter id corrumpit unumquodque excellens acutum et grave auditum, et in humoribus gustum, et in coloribus visum fortiter fulgidum et opacum, et in olfactu fortis odor et dulcis et amarus, tanquam ratio quaedam sit sensus.
Now, if voice is a harmony of some sort, and voice and the hearing of it are somehow one and also, somehow, not one and the same, and if harmony is a proportion, then the hearing must be a kind of ratio. For this reason anything excessively shrill or deep destroys the hearing; and the same in flavors destroys the taste; and in colors, the sight, whether the excessively brilliant or the dark; and in smell, a strong odor, whether sweet or bitter; as if the sense were a certain ratio.
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Unde et delectabilia quidem sunt, dum ducuntur, sincera et mixta entia, ad rationem, ut acutum aut dulce aut sallitum; delectabilia enim tunc;
Hence, too, those flavors become delectable which, from having been pure and unmixed (e.g., the sour or sweet or saline) are brought into a ratio. Then indeed they give pleasure.
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omnino autem magis quod mixtum est, symphonia, quam acutum et grave; tactus autem calefactibile et frigorabile; sed sensus ratio est; excellentia autem contristant aut corrumpunt.
And in general, what is compounded is more of a harmony than the sharp or low sounds alone; or in the case of touch, what can be both heated and chilled. Sense is a ratio which is hurt or destroyed by extremes.
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584. Quoniam autem sentimus etc. Postquam philosophus ostendit quod non sit alius sensus proprius praeter quinque, procedit ad inquirendum utrum sit aliqua potentia sensitiva communis his quinque sensibus et hoc quidem investigat ex quibusdam actionibus quae non videntur alicuius sensus propriae esse, sed videntur exigere aliquam potentiam sensitivam communem; huiusmodi autem actiones sunt duae:
584. Since, however, we do sense that we see and hear (425b12). Having shown that there are no more than five proper senses, the Philosopher next proceeds to ask whether there is some sensitive power common to these five senses. He is led to ask this by observing two activities that do not seem to belong to some proper sense but seem to require some common sensitive power; there are two actions of this sort.
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una est secundum quod percipimus actiones sensuum propriorum, puta quod sentimus nos videre et audire;
One activity is that according to which we perceive the acts of the proper senses, for example, we sense our own seeing and hearing;
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alia est secundum quod discernimus inter sensibilia diversorum sensuum, puta quod aliud sit dulce et aliud album.
the other is that according to which we distinguish between the objects of the different senses, for instance, that sweet is other than white.
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Primo ergo inquirit cui sit attribuenda prima harum actionum;
So he first inquires into the source of the former activity;
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secundo cui sit attribuenda secunda, ibi: uniuscuiusque quidem igitur etc.
and second, at each of the senses, then (426b8; [599]), he inquires into the source of the latter.
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Circa primum tria facit.
The former inquiry divides into three parts.
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Primo movet quaestionem, dicens: quoniam sentimus quod videmus, et similiter sentimus quod audimus, et sic de unoquoque sensibilium; necessarium est aut per visum sentire quod ipse visus videt, aut per aliam virtutem; et sic de aliis sensibus.
First, he states the problem, saying that the fact that we do sense our own seeing and hearing and so forth implies either that sight (for example) is able to see its very seeing or that some other power has this ability; and so also with the other senses.
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585. Secundo obiicit ad utramque partem, ibi: si autem altero etc.
585. Second, at and if (425b13), he brings objections against both these alternatives.
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Et primo inducit, ad ostendendum quod visus videat se videre, duas rationes.
But first, he proposes two arguments to show that it is sight that sees its own seeing.
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Quarum prima talis est: si homo sentit se videre altero sensu quam visu, aut hoc erit quia homo illo alio sensu videt colorem, aut omnino altero sensu videt colorem et sentit visionem coloris. Si autem eodem sensu quo sentit colorem sentit visionem coloris, sequetur quod unus et idem erit sensus et visus secundum actum, id est visionis, et subiecti coloris;
First, if a man senses his seeing not by sight but by another sense, then either this will be because a man sees color by that other sense, or by a totally different sense he sees color and senses the sight of color. But if by the same sense whereby one senses color he senses the sight of color, then the act of one and the same sense will be of sight in act, that is, of seeing, and of the subject of color.
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quare sequetur alterum duorum, quia, si iste sensus qui sentit visionem et colorem sit alius sensus a visu, oportebit quod duo sensus sint unius subiecti, scilicet coloris, aut, si iste sensus, quo sentimus visionem et colorem est idem sensus cum visu, sequetur quod sit idem eiusdem, id est quod visus sit sensus sui ipsius, quod a principio negabatur. Dicere autem quod ille alter sensus quo quis sentit se videre non sentiat colorem est omnino irrationabile, quia, si non cognosceret colorem, non posset cognoscere quid esset videre, cum videre nihil aliud sit quam sentire colorem.
Hence follows one of two consequences. For if this sense that senses sight and color is a different sense than sight, then there are two senses with the same subject, namely, color; or if the sense whereby we sense sight and color is the same as sight, it must be its own object, that is, sight is the sense of its very self, which was denied from the beginning. Now, to say that that other sense whereby one senses his seeing does not sense color is altogether unreasonable; for if it should not know color, it would not be able to know what seeing is; for seeing is nothing other than sensing color.
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586. Secundam rationem ponit ibi: amplius autem si alter etc., quae talis est: si sensus visus, id est visionis, quo scilicet sentimus nos videre, sit alter a visu, iterum quaerendum est de illo sensu, utrum scilicet ille sensus sentiat se sentire, et si non, oportebit quaerere iterum sensum qui sentiat illum sentire; aut igitur hoc procedet in infinitum, quod est impossibile, cum impossibile sit compleri actionem quae dependet ab actionibus infinitis (nec etiam unius rei potentiae possunt esse infinitae); aut oportebit quod deveniatur ad aliquem sensum qui sit iudex sui ipsius, id est percipiat se sentire; eadem ergo ratione poterat fieri in primo sensu, ut scilicet visus sentiret se videre; non est ergo alius sensus qui percipiat colorem et qui percipit visionem coloris.
586. The second argument begins at further (425b15). If the sense of sight (that is, of seeing, whereby we sense that we see) is other than sight, then one must ask whether that sense also senses its own sensing; and if it does not, then there must be a third sense that senses that sensing. And either there is a process to infinity—which is impossible, both because no action could ever be completed which depended on an infinity of actions, and because no single reality can possess an infinite number of powers—or we have to come to some sense that is judge of its very self, that is, it perceives its own sensation. Therefore, by the same reasoning, it will happen in the first sense, that is, such that sight would sense its seeing; therefore there is no other sense that perceives color and that perceives the sight of color.
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587. Deinde cum dicit: habet autem dubitationem etc., obiicit ad partem contrariam; et quia primae rationes aliqualiter concludunt verum, haec ratio per modum dubitationis proponitur, unde et eam solvet.
587. Then, at here is a problem (425b17), he puts an objection from the other side in the form of a difficulty; and because the first arguments in a way reach the truth, this argument he proposes in the manner of a doubt and then solves it.
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Est autem ratio talis: si visu sentimus nos videre, sentire autem visu nihil aliud est quam videre, ergo videmus nos videre; sed nihil videtur nisi color aut habens colorem; si igitur aliquis videt de se quod sit videns, sequitur quod primum videns, quod secundo fit visum, sit habens colorem (quod videtur inconveniens: nam dictum est supra quod visus, cum sit susceptivum coloris, est absque colore).
The objection runs thus. If by sight we sense our seeing, but to sense by sight is nothing other than seeing, then we see our seeing. But nothing is seen except color or what possesses color; if, then, one is seeing about himself that he is seeing, it follows that the first seeing (that which is subsequently seen) has a color; and that would seem incongruous, for it was said above that sight, since it receives color, is colorless.1
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588. Deinde cum dicit: manifestum igitur etc., solvit propositam dubitationem duobus modis.
588. Next, at it is clear, then (425b20), he answers this difficulty in two ways.
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Primo, concludens ex praedictis quod sentire visu multipliciter dicitur: ostensum est enim supra quod visu sentimus nos videre, item ostensum est quod visu non sentimus nisi colorem; sentire igitur visu dupliciter dicitur,
In the first place, it is clear from what has been said that to sense by sight can mean different things—for it was shown above that we sense by sight that we are seeing, and again, it was shown that we sense by sight only color; and this gives two distinct senses of “to sense by sight”:
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uno modo secundum quod visu sentimus nos videre, alio modo cum visu videmus colorem; et quod visu sentire dicatur multipliciter, ex hoc apparet quod aliquando dicimur sentire visu cum visus praesentialiter immutatur a visibili, scilicet a colore, aliquando autem discernimus visu et tenebras et lumen, etiam cum non videmus, per immutationem scilicet ab exteriori sensibili,
in one way, according to which we sense by sight that we see, and in another way when we see color by sight. And because “to sense by sight” is said in different ways, from this it is clear that we sometimes say that we sense by sight when, at the present moment, the sight is actually being impressed by the visible object, namely, color, but we can also sometimes mean that it is by sight that we distinguish between light and dark, even when we are not seeing through an impression from an exterior sensible object.
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sed non similiter dicitur utroque modo visu sentire. Redit ergo solutio ad hoc quod actio visus potest considerari vel secundum quod consistit in immutatione organi a sensibili exteriori, et sic non sentitur nisi color, unde ista actione visus non videt se videre; alia est actio visus secundum quod post immutationem organi iudicat de ipsa perceptione organi a sensibili etiam abeunte sensibili, et sic visus non solum colorem sentit, sed sentit etiam visionem coloris.
But “to sense by sight” does not mean the same thing in both cases. So what this solution comes to is this: that the act of sight can be regarded either as the modification of the sense organ by an exterior sensible object, and in this sense, only color is seen (so by this action sight does not see its seeing); or, as the act of sight insofar as, after the modification of the organ, it makes a judgment about the very perception of the organ coming from the sensible object even in the absence of the sensible object (and in this way, not only color is sensed, but so is the sight of color).
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589. Deinde cum dicit: amplius autem et videns etc., ponit aliam solutionem, quae quidem necessaria est eo quod color habet duplex esse, unum naturale in re sensibili, aliud spirituale in sensu; secundum ergo primum esse coloris processit prima solutio, haec autem secunda solutio procedit quantum ad secundum esse coloris. Circa hanc autem solutionem tria facit:
589. Then, with moreover, that which sees (425b22), he proposes his second answer to the difficulty. This answer is required by the fact that color has two modes of being: a natural mode in the sensible thing, and a spiritual mode in the sense. The former solution proceeded according to the first being of color; this one proceeds in reference to the second being of color. And here he does three things:
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primo ponit solutionem;
First, he sets out the solution;
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secundo probat quoddam quod in solutione supposuerat, ibi: si igitur est motus etc.;
second, at if, then, movement (426a2; [592]), he proves what the solution assumes;
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tertio ex hac solutione demonstrat etiam quarumdam aliarum quaestionum solutionem, ibi: quoniam autem unus etc.
third, at since the act (426a15; [594]), he applies it to the solution of certain other problems.
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590. Dicit ergo primo quod, cum soluta sit praedicta dubitatio sustinendo quod videns non sit coloratum, amplius potest solvi dicendo quod videns est tamquam coloratum, quia in vidente est similitudo coloris, unde videns est simile colorato, unde illa potentia quae videt aliquem esse videntem non est extra genus potentiae visivae; et quod videns sit quodammodo coloratum, probat per ea quae supra dicta sunt, quia unumquodque organum sensus est susceptivum speciei sensibilis sine materia [ut supra dictum est]; et ista est ratio quare abeuntibus sensibilibus fiunt in nobis sensationes et phantasiae, id est apparitiones, secundum quas aliquo modo sentiunt animalia; et sic patet quod videns est tamquam coloratum inquantum habet similitudinem coloris. Et non solum videns est tamquam coloratum et simile colorato, sed etiam actus cuiuslibet sensus est unus et idem cum actu sensibilis, sed ratione non est unus;
590. First, then, he says that while one solution of the difficulty was found by maintaining that the subject seeing color was not colored, moreover, it might be argued on the assumption that that which sees color is, in a way, colored because a likeness of color is in the one who sees, so the thing seeing is like the colored object. This is why the power by which one sees one’s own seeing is not outside the genus of the power of sight. That the one who sees is, in a sense, colored, he then proves from what was said above, that is, that organ of the sensitive power is receptive of the species of the sense-object without matter; this is why, in the absence of the sense-objects, there arise within us sensations and phantasms, that is, images, in reference to which animals in a way sense things.1 So it is clear that the one who sees is, as it were, colored insofar as he holds the likeness of a color; and not only is sight, as it were, colored and like what is colored, but also the act of any sensation is one and the same as the act of the sensible object as such, but they are not one in account.
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591. et dico actum sensus sicut auditum secundum actum, et actum sensibilis sicut sonum secundum actum: non enim semper sunt in actu, quia contingit habentia auditum non audire, et habens sonum non semper sonat; sed, cum potens audire habeat suam operationem et potens sonare sonet, tunc simul fit et sonus secundum actum qui vocatur sonatio et auditus secundum actum qui vocatur auditio. Cum igitur visus percipiat sensibile et actum eius, et videns sit simile sensibili, et actus videntis sit idem cum actu sensibilis subiecto, licet non ratione, relinquitur quod eiusdem virtutis sit videre colorem et immutationem quae est a colore, et visum in actu et visionem eius; potentia ergo illa qua videmus nos videre non est extranea a potentia visiva, sed differt ratione ab ipsa.
591. I say, “the act of sense,” meaning, for instance, hearing in act, and “the act of the sensible object,” meaning sound in act. For the two are not always in act: what has hearing does not hear all the time, and what has sound is not always sounding; but when that which is able to hear has its own activity, and that which is able to sound sounds, both hearing in act (which is called “hearing”) and sound in act (which is called “sounding”) arise simultaneously. Since, then, sight perceives the sensible object and the latter’s actuality, and the one who sees is assimilated to the object, and the act of seeing is the same as the underlying actuality of the sensible (although not in account), it follows that one and the same power sees the color and the impression that comes from the color, and the thing seen in act and our sight of it. The power, then, by which we see our seeing is not external to the power of sight, though it differs from it in account.1
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592. Deinde cum dicit: si igitur est motus etc., probat quod supposuerat, scilicet quod unus et idem sit actus sensibilis et sentientis, sed ratione differunt, ex his quae ostensa sunt in III Physicorum; ibi enim ostensum est quod tam motus quam actio vel passio sunt in eo quod agitur, id est in patiente et mobili;
592. Next, where he says, if, then, movement (426a2), he proves his assumption that the act of the sensible object and the act of the one sensing are one and the same, but they differ in account, based on things shown in Physics 3, in which it is proved that movement and action and passion are in that which is acted upon, that is, in the patient and the mobile.1
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manifestum est autem quod auditus patiatur a sono; unde necesse est quod tam sonus secundum actum qui dicitur sonatio quam auditus secundum actum qui dicitur auditio sit in eo quod est secundum potentiam, scilicet in organo auditus; et hoc ideo quia actus activi et motivi fit in patiente et non in agente et movente; et ista est ratio quare non est necessarium quod omne movens moveatur (in quocumque enim est motus illud movetur; unde, si motus et actio, qui est quidam motus, esset in movente, sequeretur quod movens moveretur). Et, sicut dictum est in III Physicorum quod actio et passio sunt unus actus subiecto, sed differunt ratione prout actio significatur ut ab agente, passio autem ut in patiente, ita supra dixit quod idem est actus sensibilis et sentientis subiecto, sed non ratione. Actus igitur sonativi vel soni est sonatio, actus autem auditivi est auditio:
Now, hearing is obviously acted upon by sound. Therefore, sound in act, which is called “sounding,” and hearing in act, which is called “audition,” reside in that which is these potentially, in the organ of hearing; and this because the act of what moves or causes comes to be in what is acted upon, not in the agent and mover. This is why it is not necessary that every mover be itself moving (for that is moving which has the movement, so if the movement or action, which is a sort of movement, were in the mover, the mover would also be moving). And as in the Physics, it was said that action and passion are one actuality of the subject, though they differ in account insofar as action is signified as from the agent, but passion is signified as in the patient, so here he says that the act of the sensible object and that of the sentient subject are one in subject, though they differ in account.1 Therefore the act of the sound-producing or of sound is sounding, while the act of the hearing power is audition.
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593. dupliciter enim dicitur auditus et sonus, secundum actum et secundum potentiam. Et quod dictum est de auditu et sono, eadem ratione se habet in aliis sensibus et sensibilibus: sicut enim actio et passio est in patiente et non in agente ut in subiecto, sed solum ut in principio a quo, ita tam actus sensibilis quam actus sensitivi est in sensitivo ut in subiecto; sed in quibusdam sensibilibus et sensitivis nominatus est uterque actus, et sensibilis ut sonatio et sensitivi ut auditio, in quibusdam tamen unum tantum nominatum est, scilicet actus sensitivi; visio enim dicitur actus visus, sed actus coloris non est nominatus, et gustus, id est gustatio, est actus gustativi; sed actus saporis non est nominatus apud Graecos.
593. For both hearing and sound can be regarded either as in act or as in potency; and what has been said of hearing and sound in this connection applies to the other senses and their objects. For as the action and the passion are in the recipient, not in the agent as in a subject, but only as in the principle from which the act arises, so too, the act of the sense-object, no less than the act of the sense power, is in the sensitive power as in its subject. However, a distinct word is used for each act, as when the act of the object is called sounding and that of the power is called hearing; in others only the act of the power is named. Vision is the act of sight, but the act of color has no name; and tasting is the act of the tasting power, but the act of flavor has no name in Greek.
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594. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem unus quidem, ex praemissa solutione procedit ad demonstrandum veritatem duarum quaestionum.
594. Then, at since the act (426a15), he uses the foregoing solution to answer two more questions.
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Quarum prima est utrum sensus et sensibilia simul corrumpantur et salventur. Ad huius ergo solutionem dicit quod, quia actus sensibilis et sensitivi est unum subiecto, sed differunt ratione, ut dictum est, necesse est quod auditus dictus secundum actum et sonus dictus secundum actum simul salventur et corrumpantur, et similiter est de sapore et gustu et aliis sensibus et sensibilibus; sed si dicantur secundum potentiam non necesse est quod simul corrumpantur aut salventur.
First, do the sense power and its object together cease and together remain in being? Answering this, he observes that, since the act of the sense-object and of the sense power is one in subject, though distinct in account (as has been said), therefore actual hearing and actual sounding must simultaneously cease to be and together persist; and so also with savor and tasting and the rest. But the same is not necessarily true of the powers and objects as in potency.
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595. Ex hac autem salutione excludit opinionem antiquorum naturalium, ibi: sed priores etc., dicens quod priores naturales non bene dicebant in hoc, quia opinabantur nihil esse album aut nigrum nisi quando videtur, neque saporem esse nisi quando gustatur, et similiter de aliis sensibus et sensibilibus (et quia non credebant esse alia entia nisi sensibilia neque aliam virtutem cognoscitivam nisi sensum, credebant quod totum esse et veritas rerum esset in apparere, et ex hoc deducebantur ad credendum contradictoria simul esse vera, propter hoc quod diversi contradictoria opinantur).
595. This leads him to reject an opinion of some early natural philosophers. The earlier natural philosophers did not speak well (426a20), he says, in supposing that there was no white or black except when it was seen, no savor except when it was tasted, and so forth. And because they thought that nothing existed except what was sensible and that the only knowing was sensation, they concluded that the whole being and truth of things was a mere appearance; and further, that contradictories could both be true at the same time, because different people opined contradictory things.
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596. Dicebant autem quodammodo recte et quodammodo non: cum enim dupliciter dicatur sensus et sensibile, scilicet secundum potentiam et secundum actum, de sensu et sensibili secundum actum accidit quod ipsi dicebant quod non esset sensibile sine sensu, non autem hoc est verum de sensu et sensibili secundum potentiam; sed ipsi loquebantur simpliciter, id est sine distinctione, de his quae dicuntur multipliciter.
596. Now, this is in a certain way right and in a certain way wrong. For the sense and the sense-object can be taken in two ways, as in potency and as in act. From the point of view of the sense and the sensible in act, what they said applies: there would be no sense-object without sensation. But it is not true from the point of view of the sense and the sensible in potency. They spoke simply, that is, without distinguishing, about matters that call for many distinctions.
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597. Deinde cum dicit: si autem symphonia etc., demonstrat ex praemissis solutionem alterius quaestionis, quare scilicet quaedam sensibilia corrumpant sensum et quaedam delectent. Et dicit quod, cum symphonia, id est vox consonans et proportionata, sit vox quaedam, et vox quodammodo sit idem quod auditus, et symphonia sit quaedam proportio, necesse est quod auditus sit quaedam proportio. Et quia quaelibet proportio corrumpitur per superabundantiam, idcirco excellens sensibile corrumpit sensum, sicut quod est excellenter grave et acutum corrumpit auditum, et excellens saporosum corrumpit gustum, et fortiter fulgidum vel obscurum corrumpit visum, et fortis odor corrumpit odoratum, quasi sensus sit quaedam proportio.
597. Then, where he says, now, if voice (426a27), he applies these principles to solve another problem: why are certain sensible objects destructive of the senses, while others delight them? And he says that since a harmony, that is, consonant and proportionate voice, is a voice, and voice is in a way one with the hearing, the fact that harmony is a certain proportion necessitates that hearing must be a certain proportion. Now, because every proportion is destroyed by excess, an excessive sense-object is therefore destructive of the sense; for example, what is excessively shrill or deep destroys the hearing; an excessively tasteable thing destroys taste; excessively brilliant or dark objects destroy the sight; strong odor destroys the sense of smell, as though the sense itself in each case were a certain proportion.
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598. Sed si plura sensibilia deducuntur ad proportionatam mixtionem, efficiuntur delectabilia, sicut in saporibus quando aliquid secundum debitam proportionem est acutum aut dulce aut salsum; tunc enim sunt [omnino] delectabilia; et omnino quod est mixtum est magis delectabile quam quod est simplex, sicut symphonia quam vox acuta tantum vel gravis tantum, et in tactu quod est compositum ex calefactibili et frigidabili; sensus enim in proportionatis delectatur, sicut in sibi similibus, eo quod sensus sit proportio quaedam; sed excellentia corrumpunt sensum vel saltem contristant ipsum.
598. On the other hand, if several sensible objects are mixed in due proportion, the effect is delectable. Thus, in flavors, when something sour or sweet or salty is mixed in a due proportion, it is extremely delectable. And what is compounded is more pleasant than what is simple, as a harmony more than merely the high voice or only the low voice. So, too, in touch, with the combinations of hot and cold. For the sense power delights in proportionate things, as in its like, being itself a certain proportion. But extremes destroy the sense, or at least hurt it.
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L. 27 (Γ.2, 426b8–427a16)The common sense
Dari unum quemdam communem sensum praeter proprios et externos ostendit, qui discernit differentias sensibilium unius et plurium sensuum
The common sense
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Unusquisque quidem igitur sensus subiecti sensibilis est, qui est in sensitivo in quantum sensitivum, et discernit subiecti sensibilis differentias, ut album quidem et nigrum visus, dulce vero et amarum gustus; similiter autem se habet hoc et in aliis.
Each of the senses, then, is of a sensible subject and in a sense organ precisely as such, and it discerns the differences within its subject—for example, for sight: black and white; for taste: sweet and bitter; and likewise with the other senses.
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Quoniam autem et album et dulce et unumquodque sensibilium ad unumquodque discernimus quodam, et sentimus quia differunt, necesse igitur sensu: sensibilia enim sunt. Qua et manifestum quoniam caro non est ultimum sensitivum: necesse enim esset tangens ipsum discernens discernere.
Since by something we distinguish, however, between white and sweet, and any other of the sense-objects, and we sense that they differ, there must be some sense for this too; for these objects are sensible. Hence it is also clear that flesh is not the ultimate sense organ; for, in that case, this discrimination would have to be effected by touching.
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Neque utique separatis contingit discernere quod alterum sit dulce ab albo, sed oportet aliquo uno utraque manifesta esse. Sic enim, etsi hoc quidem ego, illud autem tu sentis, manifestum utique erit quoniam altera ad invicem sunt; oportet autem unum dicere quoniam alterum; alterum enim dulce ab albo; dicit ergo idem; quare sicut dicit, sic et intelligit et sentit. Quod quidem igitur non possibile separatis iudicare separata, palam.
Nor could it be by divided powers that the sweet is discerned as other than the white; but both must be presented to some one power. For otherwise it would be like my perceiving one thing and you, another: it would then certainly be evident that the two were different, but some one single power must say that they differ—i.e., sweet from white. Therefore it is one single power that asserts this; and as it asserts, so it understands and senses. It is patent, then, that it is not possible to distinguish separate objects by powers themselves separate.
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Quod autem neque in separato tempore, hinc.
And the same holds with regard to separate points of time, as the following considerations show.
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Sicut enim idem dicit quod alterum bonum et malum, sic et quando alterum dicit quoniam alterum tunc et alterum non secundum accidens ipsum quando, dico autem puta nunc dico quoniam alterum, non tamen quoniam nunc alterum, sed sicut dicit et nunc et quoniam nunc;
For just as the same power says that the good and bad differ, so too is the instant the same in which it says that they differ, and being different and being different at that time are not accidental to when the statement is said—I mean, as in now saying that they are different, but not that there is now a difference—whereas this power both says this now and that the difference is now.
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simul ergo. Quare inseparabile et in inseparabili tempore.
Therefore this happens simultaneously; an undifferentiated principle distinguishes the two in an indivisible time.
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At vero inpossibile est simul secundum contrarios motus moveri idem aut indivisibile et in indivisibili tempore. Si enim dulce, sic movet sensum aut intellectum, amarum autem contrarie, et album aliter.
But it is impossible for one and the same indivisible thing to move in different directions in one and the same indivisible moment of time. For if the object is sweet, it so affects the sense or the intellect, but if bitter, contrariwise, and if white, in another way.
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Ergo simul quidem et numero indivisibile et inseparabile quod iudicat, secundum esse autem separatum. Est igitur quodam modo quod divisibile divisa sentit, est autem quod indivisibile: secundum esse quidem enim divisibile, loco autem et numero indivisibile.
Therefore what judges simultaneously is numerically indivisible and inseparable, yet distinct in being. For it is in one way capable of multiplicity because it perceives things divided off from one another: but in another way, it is indivisible. Thus in its being indeed it is divisible, but it is indivisible locally and numerically.
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Aut non possibile. Potentia quidem enim idem et indivisibile contraria, secundum esse autem non, sed in operari divisibile, et impossibile est album et nigrum esse simul, quare neque species pati ipsorum, si huiusmodi est sensus et intelligentia.
Or this is not possible; for one and the same indivisible thing can be in contrary states potentially, but not in its very being. It can be divisible in its activities indeed, but it cannot be black and white at the same time; and therefore neither can it receive the species of both—if this is how sensation and understanding occur.
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Sed sicut quod vocant quidam punctum aut unum aut duo, sic et divisibile. Secundum quod quidem igitur indivisibile, unum discernens est et simul; secundum vero quod divisibile, bis utitur eodem signo simul; in quantum quidem igitur pro duobus utitur termino, duo iudicat et separata sunt, ut et separato; in quantum vero unum, uno et simul.
But it is just as some speak of a point as one or as two, and in this sense as divisible. As indivisible, it is one thing making the discernment, and simultaneously. But as divisible, it uses the same point twice. Therefore, insofar as it uses the terminus as two, it judges two things, and they have been separated, and as by what is separate. Yet insofar as it is one, it does this by one thing and simultaneously.
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De principio quidem igitur secundum quod dicimus sensitivum esse animal, determinatum sit hoc modo.
So much then by way of explaining the principle by which we call any animal sensitive.
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599. Unusquisque quidem igitur sensus etc. Processit superius Aristoteles ad investigandum sensum communem ex hac operatione qua sentimus nos videre et audire; ex hac autem operatione ad hoc deventum est quod potentia visiva sentit visionem, alio tamen modo quam sentiat sensibile exterius, sed nondum habetur quod potentia iudicativa de actibus sensuum sit una et communis; et ideo procedit ulterius ad investigandum huiusmodi veritatem per aliam operationem quae ostendit esse communem potentiam unam habentem se quodammodo ad omnes quinque sensus, et haec operatio est discernere sensibilia ad invicem. Et circa hoc duo facit:
599. Each of the senses, then (426b8). So far, Aristotle’s approach to an examination of the common sense has been by way of the act whereby we sense our own seeing and hearing. But his scrutiny of this sensing has so far only led him to the conclusion that seeing is itself sensed by the power of sight, though not in the same way as exterior objects are sensed. He has not yet determined that there is any one common power that makes a judgment about the acts of the senses. But now he takes his inquiry a step further by pointing to another activity of the soul as evidence of the existence of a power with, in a way, a common relationship to all the five senses: the activity of discriminating between various sense-objects. And here he does two things:
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primo ostendit inquantum se possit extendere discretio sensus proprii;
first, he shows how far the proper senses can so discriminate;
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secundo inquirit de illa discretione sensibilium quae excedit virtutem sensus proprii, ibi: quoniam autem et album etc.
second, he investigates that discrimination of sensible objects which exceeds the power of any proper sense, at since by something we distinguish (426b12; [601]).
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600. Dicit ergo primo quod ex dictis manifestum est quod unusquisque sensus cognoscitivus est sensibilis sibi subiecti, cuius species fit in suo organo inquantum est tale organum (immutatur enim organum uniuscuiusque sensus a proprio obiecto sensus per se, non secundum accidens), et unusquisque sensus discernit differentias proprii sensibilis, sicut visus discernit album et nigrum, gustus dulce et amarum, et similiter se habet in aliis sensibus.
600. He observes then, first, that we have seen that each of the senses knows its own sensible subject, the species of which comes to be within its own particular organ as such; for the organ of each sense is, through itself and not accidentally, impressed by the proper object of that sense.1 And each sense discerns the differences of that proper sensible, as sight, for example, discerns white and black; taste, sweet and bitter; and likewise with the other senses.
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601. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem et album etc., ostendit cui sit attribuenda ista discretio quae excedit sensum proprium, scilicet discernere sensibile unius sensus a sensibili alterius. Et circa hoc duo facit:
601. Then, at since by something we distinguish (426b12), he shows to what one should attribute that discrimination that exceeds the proper senses, that is, the discrimination between the objects of the different senses. And here he does two things:
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primo determinat veritatem;
first, he demonstrates his conclusion;
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secundo obiicit contra veritatem et solvit, ibi: at vero impossibile est etc.
second, he poses and solves an objection, at but it is impossible (426b29; [606]).
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Circa primum tria facit:
The demonstration has three parts:
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primo ostendit quod aliquis sensus est qui discernit inter album et dulce;
first, he shows that there is a sense that discriminates between white and sweet;
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secundo ostendit quod non sunt duae potentiae sensus, sed una, ibi: neque utique separatis etc.;
second, that this sense is one power, not two, at nor could it be divided (426b17; [603]);
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tertio quod simul illa potentia percipit utrumque sensibile inter quae discernit, ibi: quod autem neque separato etc.
third, that it simultaneously perceives both objects between which it discriminates, at and the same holds (426b23; [605]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, quia discernimus aliqua virtute non solum album a nigro vel dulce ab amaro, sed etiam album a dulci, et unumquodque sensibile discernimus ab unoquoque, et sentimus quod differunt, oportet quod hoc sit per sensum, quia cognoscere sensibilia inquantum sunt sensibilia est sensus. Cognoscimus enim differentiam albi et dulcis non solum quantum ad quod quid est utriusque, quod pertinet ad intellectum, sed etiam quantum ad diversam immutationem sensus, et hoc non potest fieri nisi per sensum
First, then, he observes that whereas we are able to distinguish not only between black and white, or sweet and bitter, but also between white and sweet, and indeed between any one sense-object and another, it must be through a sense that we do this, for to know sense-objects as such is a sense activity. For we know the difference between white and sweet not only as far as what each of these are, which pertains to the intellect, but even as far as different modifications of the senses, and this can pertain only to some sense power.
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602. et, si per aliquem sensum fit, hoc maxime videtur quod fiat per tactum, qui est primus sensuum et quodammodo radix et fundamentum omnium sensuum et ab hoc animal habet quod dicatur sensitivum. Unde manifestum est quod caro non est ultimum organum sensus tactus, quia, cum per sensum tactus fiat discretio, necesse esset quod in ipso contactu carnis a tangibili fieret discretio tangibilis ab aliis sensibilibus. Attribuitur autem ista discretio tactui non secundum quod tactus est sensus proprius, sed secundum quod est fundamentum omnium sensuum et propinquius se habens ad fontalem radicem omnium sensuum, quae est sensus communis.
602. If this occurs through a sense, the most likely sense power would seem to be touch, the first of the senses, the root and foundation, as it were, of all the senses, the one which entitles an animal to be called “sensitive.” But it is clear that, if this discrimination were to come from touch, then flesh is not the ultimate organ of the sense of touch; for if this discrimination were to occur through the sense of touch, it would have to be that in the very contact of flesh and the tangible this discrimination of the tangible from the other senses would occur. But this discrimination is attributed to touch not insofar as touch is a proper sense, but only as the foundation of all the senses and as standing closer to the fundamental root of them all, namely, the common sense itself.
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603. Deinde cum dicit: neque utique separatis etc., ostendit quod eiusdem sensus sit quod discernit album a dulci. Posset enim aliquis credere quod discernamus album a dulci non quadam una potentia, sed diversis, ut scilicet inquantum gustu cognoscimus dulce et visu album; hoc autem excludit dicens quod non contingit discernere quod dulce sit alterum ab albo separatis potentiis, id est diversis, sed oportet ad discernendum inter ea quod secundum unam aliquam potentiam manifesta sint nobis. Ita enim esset, si diversis potentiis sentiremus dulce et album, sicut si diversi homines sentirent unus dulce, alius album, puta si ego sentio hoc et tu illud: hoc autem posito, manifestum erit quod altera sunt ab invicem dulce et album, quia aliter patior ego a dulci quam tu ab albo,
603. Then, at nor could (426b17), he shows that it is by one and the same sense that we distinguish white from sweet. For one might have supposed that we did it by different powers, such that we know the sweet by taste and the white by sight. But he excludes this, saying, it could not happen that by divided, that is, distinct, powers the sweet is discerned as other than the white. But both must appear to some one power if they are to be distinguished. For if this were so, if we were to sense the sweet and the white by diverse powers, it would be like they were sensed by two different men, one perceiving sweet and the other white; for example, my perceiving one thing and you, another. In this case, it will be manifest that sweet and white are different, because I am acted upon by the sweet otherwise than are you by the white.
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604. sed tamen ista diversitas non erit manifesta, sed oportet quod unus sit qui dicat quod dulce sit alterum ab albo; hoc enim est aliquid unum verum, scilicet quod alterum sit dulce ab albo; ergo oportet quod istud unum ab eodem dicatur; sed dictio est interpretatio interioris apprehensionis, ergo sicut unus est qui dicit, ita oportet quod unus sit qui intelligat et sentiat alterum esse dulce ab albo.
604. But, nevertheless, this diversity would not be manifest; rather, there must be one who says that the sweet is other than the white, for this distinction is some one truth, that the sweet is other than the white. Thus there must be one thing by which it is said, but speech is expression of an inward apprehension, so just as it is one thing it asserts, so too, there must be one thing that understands and senses that sweet and white are different.
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Dicit autem intelligit et sentit, quia nondum ostensum est quod aliud sit intellectus a sensu, vel quia ista diversitas et sensu et intellectu cognoscitur. Sicut igitur oportet quod unus homo qui dicit alterum esse album a dulci sit qui cognoscit utrumque, ita oportet quod una potentia sit qua cognoscitur utrumque: nam homo non cognoscit nisi per aliquam potentiam; et hoc est quod concludit ulterius palam esse quod non est possibile iudicare separata, id est quod aliqua sint diversa, separatis, id est diversis, sed oportet quod sit eadem potentia quae utrumque cognoscat.
He says, understands and senses, either because he has not yet shown the distinction between sense and intellect or perhaps because both these powers know the difference in question. As, then, the man who says that white is other than sweet must be one man aware of both objects, so he must do this by means of one power whereby he knows each; for a man does not know except through some power. Hence, Aristotle’s conclusion: that it is clearly not possible to distinguish separate objects, that is, that two things are distinct, by separate, that is, by distinct, means. There must be one single power aware of both things.
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605. Deinde cum dicit: quod autem neque in separato etc., ostendit quod oporteat simul utrumque cognosci. Dicit ergo quod ex his quae dicentur manifestum est etiam quod neque in separato tempore, id est in diverso tempore, cognoscit utrumque. Sicut enim ille qui iudicat aliqua esse diversa dicit aliquid unum et idem, scilicet quod alterum sit bonum et malum, sic et dicit quando alterum sit: dicit enim quod sit alterum tunc quando iudicat; et hoc ipsum quando sit alterum, non dicit secundum accidens, ita quod quando referatur ad dicentem, ut puta quia nunc dicit quod est alterum, si non diceret quod nunc est alterum (hoc enim esset per accidens respectu eius quod dicitur), sed sicut nunc dicit quod est alterum, ita dicit quod nunc sit alterum; hoc autem non posset esse, nisi simul ea apprehenderet, id est in illo instanti pro quo iudicat ea esse altera; manifestum est ergo quod simul cognoscit utrumque. Ergo sicut est inseparabilis potentia, id est una et eadem, quae cognoscit utrumque eorum inter quae iudicatur differentia, ita oportet quod in inseparabili tempore apprehendat utrumque.
605. Next, at and the same (426b23), he proves that this awareness is of both things simultaneously, not at separate (that is, distinct) points of time. This will appear, he says, from what follows; for just as he who judges that certain things are different says some one thing, as for example, that the good and bad differ, so too is the instant the same in which he says they differ. For he says that they are different at that time when he is judging. And this now is not accidental, such as when the time refers to the speaker, as now saying that they are different (and not that there is now a difference)—for this now would be merely accidental to the object—whereas the judgment of difference is in the present in the sense that there is difference at present, which necessarily implies a simultaneous apprehension of the two different objects; they are both known in the same instant as they are known to be different. Obviously, then, they are known at once and together. Hence, just as one undivided power perceives each of the things among which it judges the difference, so too in an indivisible time both are apprehended.
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606. Deinde cum dicit: at vero impossibile etc., obiicit in contrarium. Et circa hoc quatuor facit.
606. However, he now poses an objection to himself; concerning which he does four things.
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Primo ponit obiectionem: impossibile est idem et indivisibile [simul] moveri secundum contrarios motus simul et <in> indivisibili tempore; sed intellectus et sensus moventur a sensibili et intelligibili inquantum sentiunt et intelligunt; diversa autem sensibilia et contraria diversis et contrariis motibus movent; ergo impossibile est quod eadem vis sensitiva aut intellectiva simul cognoscat contraria et diversa.
First, he states the objection, as follows. But it is impossible for one and the same indivisible thing to move in different directions in one and the same indivisible moment of time (426b29). But the intellect and the senses are moved by the sensible and the intelligible insofar as they are sensing and understanding; now, distinct and mutually exclusive sense-objects move by distinct and mutually exclusive movements; therefore one and the same sensitive or intellectual power cannot know distinct and mutually exclusive objects at the same time.
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607. Secundo ibi: ergo simul quidem, ponit unam solutionem. Et dicit quod illud quod iudicat differentiam inter contraria vel diversa est simul et numero indivisibile et inseparabile, id est unum subiecto, sed secundum esse est separatum, id est ratione est diversum. Sic igitur quodammodo divisibile sentit divisa, id est diversa, alio autem modo indivisibile sentit diversa, quia secundum esse est divisibile, id est ratione est diversum, sed loco et numero est indivisibile, id est subiecto est unum. Et dicit loco, quia diversae potentiae inveniuntur in diversis partibus corporis organicae.
607. Second, at therefore what (427a2), he suggests the following solution. That which judges the difference between contrary and diverse things simultaneously is numerically indivisible and inseparable, that is, it is one in subject; but in being, and therefore in its account, it is distinct. Therefore, it is in one way capable of multiplicity because it perceives things divided, that is, as diverse, but in another way the indivisible senses distinct objects; for in its being, that is, in its account, it is diverse, but it is indivisible locally and numerically, that is, it is one in subject. He says, locally, referring to the fact that different powers are found in different parts of an organic body.
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608. Tertio ibi aut non possibile etc., improbat hanc solutionem dicens quod non possibile est praedictam positionem stare. Quod enim est idem et indivisibile secundum subiectum, sed non secundum esse, id est secundum rationem, potest quidem habere contraria secundum potentiam, sed quod habet contraria in operari, id est secundum actum, oportet quod sit divisibile, et impossibile est idem et indivisibile simul et semel esse album et nigrum, quare neque possibile aliquod unum et indivisibile simul pati species ipsorum, et ita neque intelligere et sentire, si intelligere et sentire est huiusmodi, id est pati quoddam.
608. Third, at or this is not possible (427a5), he rejects this solution by saying that this position cannot stand. For if a thing really is one and the same indivisible in subject, but not in its very being or account, it can indeed hold contrary states, in potency, but that it hold contraries in its activities, that is, in act, it must be divisible. One and the same indivisible thing cannot be white and black at the same time in the same respect; nor, for the same reason, can it receive the species of both, white and black objects. And the same is true of understanding and sensing, if this is how understanding and sensing occur, that is, by a certain being acted upon.
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609. Quarto ibi: sed sicut quod vocant etc., ponit veram solutionem. Et solutio ista sumitur ex similitudine puncti;
609. Fourth, at but it is just as (427a9), he gives the true solution, using the likeness of a point.
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punctum enim quod est inter duas partes lineae potest accipi ut unum aut duo: ut unum quidem secundum quod continuat partes lineae ut communis terminus, ut duo autem secundum quod bis utimur puncto, scilicet ut principio unius lineae et ut fine alterius;
For any point between two parts of a line can be regarded either as one or two. It is one as continuing the parts of the line that lie on either side of it, as a common terminus. It is two inasmuch as we use the point twice, that is, as the beginning of one line and as the end of the other.
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sic intelligendum est quod vis sentiendi diffunditur in organa quinque sensuum ab aliqua una radice communi a qua quidem procedit vis sentiendi in omnia organa et ad quam terminantur omnes immutationes singulorum organorum; potest ergo considerari dupliciter: uno modo prout est unum principium et unus terminus omnium sensibilium immutationum, alio modo prout est principium et terminus huius et illius sensus.
In this way one should understand that the power of sensing flows to the organs of all the five senses from one common root, from which goes forth the capacity of sensing in all the organs and to which all the modifications of the individual organs are terminated. Therefore this can be regarded from two points of view: either as the one principle and terminus of all sensible modifications, or as the principle and terminus of this and that sense.
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Et hoc est quod dicit quod, sicut punctus est unum aut duo, sic divisibile est principium sensitivum commune. Sic vero divisibile est inquantum simul bis utitur eodem signo, id est principio sensitivo, scilicet ut principio et termino visus et auditus;
And so he says that just as a point is as one or as two, and in this sense it is divisible, so too with the common sensitive principle. It is divisible insofar as it uses the same point twice, that is, the sensitive principle as the principle and terminus of sight and hearing.
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610. inquantum igitur utitur aliquis principio sensitivo quasi uno termino pro duobus, intantum duo iudicat et separata sunt quae accipiuntur sicut et separato, id est divisibili, principio cognoscuntur; inquantum vero est unum in se, sicut uno principio cognoscit differentiam utriusque et simul. Habet igitur hoc principium sensitivum commune quod simul cognoscat plura inquantum accipitur bis ut terminus duarum immutationum sensibilium, inquantum vero est unum iudicare potest differentiam unius ad alterum.
610. Insofar as this single principle uses the terminus as two, insofar as it judges two things and they have been separated, which things are taken as separate, that is, divisible, they are known by the principle; yet insofar as it is one in itself, that is, by one principle, it knows their differences simultaneously. Therefore this common sensitive principle has the power to know several objects simultaneously inasmuch as it is taken twice, as the term of two sensible modifications. But inasmuch as it is one, it is able to judge the difference between one and the other.
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611. Oportet autem istud principium sensitivum commune habere aliquod organum, quia pars sensitiva non habet aliquam operationem sine organo. Cum igitur organum tactus diffundatur per totum corpus, necessarium videtur quod ibi sit organum huius principii sensitivi communis ubi est prima radix organi tactus; et propter hoc superius dixit quod, si caro esset ultimum organum tactus, quod tangendo secundum carnem discerneremus unum sensibile ab alio.
611. Now, because the sensitive part has no activity without an organ, this common sensitive principle must have its organ; and since the organ of touch is all over the body, it seems necessary that, wherever the primary root of the organ of touch may be, there also is the organ of the common sensitive principle. It was with this in mind that Aristotle has said that if flesh were the fundamental organ of touch, we should discriminate between various sense-objects by merely touching things with our flesh.
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612. Considerandum est etiam quod, licet hoc principium commune immutetur a sensu proprio quia ad sensum communem perveniunt immutationes omnium sensuum propriorum sicut ad communem terminum, non tamen sensus proprius est nobilior quam sensus communis, licet movens sit nobilius moto et agens patiente; sicut nec sensibile exterius est nobilius quam sensus proprius, licet moveat ipsum: est enim secundum quid nobilius, scilicet inquantum est actu album vel dulce ad quod est sensus proprius in potentia, sed sensus proprius est nobilior simpliciter propter virtutem sensitivam, unde et nobiliori modo recipit, scilicet sine materia: omne enim recipiens recipit aliquid secundum modum suum; et sic etiam sensus communis nobiliori modo recipit quam sensus proprius propter hoc quod virtus sensitiva consideratur in sensu communi ut in radice et minus divisa.
612. We may note also that though this common principle is modified by the proper senses because the modifications of all the proper senses reach all the way to the common sense as to their common terminus, nonetheless the proper sense is not nobler than the common sense, even though a mover is nobler than what is moved, and an agent than what it acts upon. Nor is the exterior sensible object nobler than the proper sense moved by it, though it does move it; for it is nobler in a certain respect, that is, insofar as it is actually white or sweet whereas the sense is so potentially. But simply speaking, the proper sense is nobler on account of the sensitive power; this is also why it receives in a nobler way (that is, without matter), for every receiver receives something according to its own mode. And in this way too the common sense receives its object in a still nobler way than does the proper sense, because the sensitive power is considered to be in the common sense as in its root, and as less divided.
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Neque oportet quod per aliquam actionem sensus communis species recepta in organo fiat in ipso, quia omnes potentiae partis sensitivae sunt passivae nec est possibile quod una potentia sit activa et passiva.
Yet we must not suppose that the species are received in the organ through some action of the common sense; for all powers of the sensitive part are passive, and no power can be both active and passive.
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613. Considerandum est etiam quod sensus proprius habet discernere inter contraria sensibilia inquantum participat aliquid de virtute sensus communis, quia et ipse sensus proprius est unus terminus diversarum immutationum quae fiunt per medium a contrariis sensibilibus; sed ultimum iudicium et ultima discretio pertinet ad sensum communem.
613. Observe too that each proper sense is able to discriminate between contrary sense-objects in virtue of its share in the power of the common sense; for each is one of the terminal points for the various modifications that reach us from mutually exclusive exterior sense-objects through a medium. But the final judgment and discrimination belong to the common sense.
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614. Ultimo autem epilogando concludit quod dictum est de principio secundum quod animal dicitur esse sensitivum vel potens sentire.
614. Concluding, he says that he has now discussed the principle by which we call any animal (427a15) sensitive, or able to sense.
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L. 28 (Γ.3, 427a17–427b26)Sense distinguished from intellect and imagination distinguished from opinion
Sapere et intelligere, ad sensum non pertinere, et consequenter sensum et intellectum, nullatenus esse idem probat: quod item phantasia, sive sentire, et opinari, vel opinio, multipliciter probat
Sense distinguished from intellect and imagination distinguished from opinion
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Quoniam autem duabus differentiis diffiniunt maxime animam, motuque secundum locum et in eo quod est intelligere et discernere et sentire, videtur autem et intelligere et sapere tanquam quoddam sentire esse: in utrisque enim his anima iudicat aliquid et cognoscit eorum quae sunt.
Now, if the soul is defined principally by two differences, by motion according to place and by what it is to understand, to discern, and to sense, it would seem that both to understand and to judge are a kind of sense-perception—for in either case the soul judges something and knows of things that exist.
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Et antiqui sapere et sentire idem esse aiunt. Sicut Empedocles dixit: ad presens voluntas augetur et in hominibus et in aliis, unde eis semper sapere altera praestat. Idem autem his vult et id quod est Homeri: talis enim intellectus est in terrenis hominibus qualem ducit in die pater virorumque deorumque.
The early philosophers, indeed, said that rational judgment and sensation were the same thing, as when Empedocles says, the will is increased in man in the present, and in another place, whence it always presents them new objects of judging. To the same purport is that line of Homer: the intellect of mortals is such as the father of gods and men brings into light.
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Omnes enim hii intelligere corporeum sicut sentire opinantur, et sentire et sapere simile simili, sicut in secundum principia rationibus determinavimus.
All these suppose the intellect to be something bodily, like sensation, and that both sensing and rationally judging are of like by like, as we explained at the beginning of this treatise.
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Et tamen oportuit simul ipsos de deceptione dicere: magis proprium enim est animalibus et plurimum tempus in hoc perficit anima. Unde necesse aut, ut quidam dicunt, omnia quae videntur esse vera, aut dissimilis tactum deceptionem esse: hoc enim contrarium ei quod simile simili cognoscere.
But they ought at the same time to have treated of error, which is a state more proper to animals, and in which the soul spends the greater part of its time. So it must follow, either that all that seems so is true (as some maintain) or that error is a contact with what is unlike, this being the contrary of knowing like by like.
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Videtur autem et deceptio et scientia contrariorum eadem esse.
It would appear, however, that error and knowledge are the same with respect to contraries.
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Quod quidem igitur non idem sit sapere et sentire, manifestum est. Hoc quidem enim in omnibus est, illud autem in paucis animalium est.
Therefore it should be evident that rational judgment and sensation are not the same. For the latter is in all animals, the former in but few.
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Sed neque intelligere, in quo est et recte et non recte, recte quidem prudentia et scientia aut opinio vera, non recte autem, contraria horum; neque hoc est idem cum ipso sentire: sensus quidem enim propriorum semper verus est. Et omnibus inest animalibus, intelligere autem contingit et falso et nulli inest cui non et ratio.
Nor again is understanding. It may be correct or incorrect—correct as prudence, science, and true opinion, incorrect as the opposite of these. Nor is this the same as sensation. For sensation is always true of its own proper objects and is found in all animals, whereas intelligence is sometimes accompanied by error and is found in no species that lack reason.
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Phantasia autem alterum est et a sensu et ab intellectu, et haec non fit sine sensu, et sine hac non est opinio.
But imagination is other than both sensation and understanding. Yet it cannot occur without sensation, and without it there is no opinion.
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Quod autem non est eadem phantasia et opinio, manifestum. Haec quidem enim passio in nobis est cum volumus, prae oculis enim est facere, sicut in recordativis positi et idolum facientes; opinari autem non in nobis est, necesse enim falsum aut verum dicere.
It is evident, however, that opinion and imagination are not identical. For the latter passion arises in us at will, as a picture before our eyes, like the imagery employed by those who cultivate memory training. But opinion is not within our power in this way; it must express the true or the false, of necessity.
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Amplius autem cum opinamur difficile aliquid aut terribile, statim compatimur, similiter autem est et si confidendum; secundum phantasiam autem similiter nos habemus sicut si essemus considerantes in pictura difficilia et confidentia.
Further, when we opine that anything is arduous or fearful, we are at once emotionally acted upon; and likewise, if there is an occasion for confidence. But in imagining, it is as though we were regarding in a picture things arduous or encouraging.
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Sunt autem et ipsius acceptionis differentiae scientia et opinio et prudentia et contraria horum, de quorum differentia altera sit ratio.
These are, besides, the various modes of making a judgment: science, opinion, and prudence, with their contraries. Let the question of their differences be discussed elsewhere.
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615. Quoniam autem duabus differentiis etc. Postquam ostendit philosophus quod duae operationes de quibus dubium videbatur, scilicet percipere actus sensuum propriorum et discernere inter sensibilia diversorum sensuum, non excedunt facultatem principii sensitivi, nunc vult inquirere utrum sapere et intelligere excedant facultatem eiusdem principii. Et circa hoc duo facit:
615. Now, if the soul is defined principally (427a17). After showing that the two activities about which there was a difficulty, perceiving the acts of the proper senses and discriminating between their various objects, are not beyond the range of the sensitive principle, the Philosopher now addresses himself to the question whether rational judgment and understanding are beyond its range. And he does two things here.
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primo ostendit quod sapere et intelligere non pertinent ad sensum, quod est ostendere sensum et intellectum non esse idem;
First, he proves that rational judgment and understanding do not pertain to sense, which is the same as to show that sense and intellect are distinct powers.
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secundo ostendit quod nec phantasia, quae pertinet ad sensum, est idem cum opinione, quae pertinet ad intellectum, ibi: phantasia autem alterum est etc.
Second, at but imagination is other (427b14; [632]), he shows that the imagination, which pertains to sense, is other than the power to form opinions, which pertains to the understanding.
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Circa primum duo facit:
The former argument subdivides into two.
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primo ponit opinionem ponentium sensum et intellectum esse idem;
First, he states the theory of the identity of sense and intellect.
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secundo improbat eam, ibi: et tamen oportuit etc.
Second, he refutes this theory, at but they ought at the same time (427a29; [624]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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primo ponit opinionem;
First, he states the opinion.
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secundo assignat causam opinionis, ibi: omnes enim hii intelligere.
Second, he assigns the cause of this opinion, at all these suppose the intellect (427a26; [622]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
Concerning the first, he does two things.
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primo ponit opinionem in communi;
First, he states the opinion in common;
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secundo inducit quaedam verba quorumdam philosophorum quae ad idem pertinere videntur, ibi: et antiqui sapere etc.
second, he brings in some remarks of certain philosophers that seemed relevant, at the early philosophers, indeed (427a21; [617]).
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616. Dicit ergo primo quod, quia antiqui philosophi definiebant animam secundum duo, scilicet secundum motum secundum locum et secundum cognitionem, quae includit intellectivam discretionem et sensum, videtur ex hoc quod secundum eorum opinionem intelligere et sapere sit quoddam sentire, quia tam intelligendo quam sentiendo anima iudicat et cognoscit.
616. First, then, he says that as the early philosophers defined the soul (427a17) in terms of motion according to place and knowledge—which includes intellectual discernment and sensation—it would seem to have been their view that to understand and to judge rationally were the same sort of activity as sense-perception; for in both the soul judges and knows.
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617. Deinde cum dicit: et antiqui sapere etc., ostendit quod non solum hoc sequitur ex eo quod in communi dicebant, sed expresse antiqui dixerunt quod idem sit sapere per intellectum et sentire.
617. Next, where he says, the early philosophers (427a21), he shows that this is more than a mere inference from their general teaching and that they explicitly taught that sensation and rational judgment through understanding were identically the same.
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Et, ut intelligantur verba philosophorum quae inducit quomodo ad propositum faciunt, considerandum est quod nullum corpus potest directe agere in id quod nullo modo est corporeum; quia igitur potentiae sensitivae aliquo modo sunt corporeae, quia sunt virtutes in organis corporeis, immutari possunt ex actione corporum caelestium, per accidens tamen, quia neque anima neque virtus animae movetur nisi per accidens moto corpore; et propter hoc contingit quod ex impressione corporis caelestis variatur phantasia et appetitus sensitivus, unde et animalia irrationalia, quae solo appetitu aguntur in suis motibus, ut plurimum sequuntur impressiones corporum caelestium. Ponere igitur quod corpora caelestia habeant impressionem directe in partem intellectivam quantum ad intellectum et voluntatem, est ponere quod intellectus et voluntas sint virtutes corporeae. Et hoc sonant verba quorumdam antiquorum.
But in order to understand the words which he quotes here of these philosophers, and their relevance to the present argument, we have to consider that no body can act directly upon what is purely incorporeal. Now, the sense powers are in some way bodily, because they are powers in bodily organs. Therefore they are subject to the influence of the heavenly bodies, though only accidentally, for neither the soul itself nor any of its powers is moved by a body’s being moved except accidentally. Consequently, the imagination and sense-appetite are modified in various ways by the influence of the heavenly bodies. Brute animals, which are led by appetite alone in their own motions, for the most part follow the impressions of the heavenly bodies. Hence to suppose that heavenly bodies act directly upon the intellect and will is to posit that these powers are bodily. And this is what some of the early philosophers seem to have said.
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618. Dixit enim Empedocles quod tam in hominibus quam in aliis animalibus voluntas augetur, id est incitatur ad agendum, ad praesens, id est secundum praesentis horae dispositionem, quae quidem dispositio dependet ex dispositione corporum caelestium; unde praesens tempus vel hora eis, id est hominibus et aliis animalibus, semper praestat sapere altera: diversis enim horis et temporibus diversa et diversimode homo et alia animalia inveniuntur iudicare de rebus.
618. Empedocles, for instance, said that in man, no less than in other animals, the will is increased, that is, prompted to act, in the present, that is, according to the disposition of the present hour, which itself depends on the disposition of the heavenly bodies. It is the present moment that always presents them, that is, presents to men and the other animals, new objects of judging; for all the animals, men included, judge things differently at different times.
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619. Et ad idem pertinet illud verbum Homeri: talis est intellectus in terrenis hominibus qualem pater virorumque deorumque, id est sol, ducit in die; dicitur autem sol pater virorum, quia est aliqua causa generationis humanae: homo enim generat hominem et sol; dicitur autem pater deorum vel propter corpora caelestia, quae antiqui deos appellabant, quae secundum astrologos quodammodo regulantur a sole, vel propter homines quos deificari credebant, qui virtute solis generantur; virtus autem solis est in die, quia in die nobis apparet dum movetur in superiori hemisphaerio, unde et ab astrologis dicitur planeta diurnus; voluit igitur Homerus dicere quod homines terreni intellectum sortiuntur ex actione solis et quod secundum diversitatem motus et situs et aspectus solaris diversimode se habent in intelligendo.
619. To the same purport Homer says that the intellect of mortals is such as the father of gods and men (that is, the sun) brings into light. He calls the sun the father of men because it is a certain cause of human generation; for a man is born from a man and the sun. And the sun he calls the father of gods, either following the old view that made gods of the other heavenly bodies which, the astronomers tell us, are governed somehow by the sun, or following the view that certain men are divine because generated by the power of the sun. And the sun’s power is, of course, strongest in the daytime while it is visible and is moving across the upper hemisphere; hence the name of “day planet” given it by astronomers. So what Homer is saying is that the sun is the cause of understanding in men and that their knowledge of things varies with the movement, situation, and appearance of the sun.
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620. Sciendum est autem quod hunc versum Homeri Aristoteles non totum posuit, sed solum principium; unde nec in Graeco nec in Arabico plus habetur quam hic: talis enim intellectus est, ut sic intelligatur hoc dictum sicut consuevimus inducentes aliquem versum alicuius auctoritatis ponere principium tantum, si versus sit notus. Sed quia hic versus Homeri non erat notus apud Latinos, Boetius totum posuit.
620. In point of fact, Aristotle quotes only the beginning of Homer’s line; neither the Greek text nor the Arabic gives us more than the intellect of mortals is such. Aristotle relies on his readers remembering the whole of it from a part, as when one quotes the first words of a well-known verse of any author. But Boethius cites the whole of the line from Homer, for the sake of his Latin readers who were not familiar with that poet.
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621. Patet ergo quod [ex] hoc quod hic dicitur quod corpora caelestia habent directam impressionem in intellectum et voluntatem, idem est ac si ponatur quod intellectus est idem cum sensu. Indirecte vero impressio corporum caelestium potest pertingere ad intellectum vel voluntatem, prout intellectus et voluntas coniunguntur in sua operatione virtutibus sensitivis: laeso enim organo phantasiae, impeditur intellectus in sua operatione; et ex appetitu sensibili inclinatur voluntas ad aliquid volendum vel nolendum. Quia tamen voluntas non ex necessitate trahitur ab appetitu sensibili, sed semper ei liberum manet sequi inclinationem appetitus sensibilis vel non sequi, ideo corpora caelestia nullam necessitatem humanis corporibus inducunt.
621. What has been said, then, makes it quite clear that if the heavenly bodies do have a direct influence on the intellect and will, then there is no difference between the intellect and the senses. There is no difficulty, however, about admitting an indirect influence of the heavenly bodies upon intellect and will, insofar as these powers are joined in their activity with the sense powers. Thus any injury to the organ of the imagination will impede the intellect’s own activity; and the will is inclined towards choosing or refusing something by the sensitive appetite. But since the will is never drawn of necessity by the sensitive appetite, but remains free to follow or not the inclination of the appetite, human actions are never completely determined by the influences of the celestial bodies.
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622. Deinde cum dicit: omnes enim hii intelligere etc., ostendit causam praedictae positionis. Manifestum est autem quod, remota differentia qua aliqua ad invicem differunt, remanent idem, sicut si rationale auferatur ab homine remanebit de numero irrationabilium animalium; haec autem est differentia qua differt cognitio intellectiva a sensitiva quod sentire est aliquid corporeum (non enim operatio sensus est sine organo corporali), intelligere autem non est aliquid corporeum (quia operatio intellectus non est per organum corporeum, ut infra ostendetur). Ideo ergo antiqui ponebant sensum et intellectum idem, quia opinabantur quod intelligere esset aliquid corporeum sicut et sentire;
622. Next, he states the reason why this opinion arose, at all these suppose the intellect (427a26). If you take away that by which things differ, they are left the same; for example, if rationality is removed from man, he is left as one of the irrational animals. Now, the difference between intellectual and sensitive cognition is that the latter is something bodily. For sensation cannot occur without a bodily organ, whereas understanding, as we shall prove later, is not bodily, since the intellect’s activity does not take place through a bodily organ.1 But to the early philosophers intellect seemed to be something bodily, like sensation; hence they supposed that intellect and sense were the same.
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623. quomodo autem utrumque ponerent aliquid corporeum, ostendit per hoc quod ponebant tam sapere secundum intellectum quam sentire contingere per virtutem similitudinis, sicut in primo libro dictum est, et intelligebant similitudinem secundum esse corporeum, puta quod per terram cognoscitur terra et per aquam aqua et sic de aliis, unde sequebatur quod sentire et intelligere consequebantur naturam corpoream et eodem modo; et sic sentire et intelligere sequitur idem esse.
623. And how they thought of both activities as bodily he next explains, saying that they maintained that the acts of judging rationally by intellect and sensing arose from the power of a likeness, as it was said in book 1; and they thought this likeness was bodily in its being, so that earth was known by earth and water by water, and so on with other objects.1 And consequently, sensing and understanding both followed upon our bodily nature and in the same way, and therefore it follows that sensing and understanding are the same thing.
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624. Deinde cum dicit: et tamen oportuit etc., improbat praedictam positionem.
624. He goes on now, at but they ought (427a29), to criticize this opinion:
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Et primo quantum ad causam;
first, with regard to the premise on which it depends;
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secundo quantum ad ipsam positionem, ibi: quod quidem igitur non idem etc.
and second, at therefore it should be evident (427b6; [629]), directly in itself.
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Dicit ergo primo quod philosophi assignantes causam cognitionis esse similitudinem cognoscentis ad cognitum debuerunt etiam assignare aliquam causam deceptionis, quia deceptio videtur esse magis propria animalibus quam cognitio secundum conditionem suae naturae; videmus enim quod homines ex seipsis decipi et errare possunt, ad hoc autem quod veritatem cognoscant oportet quod ab aliis doceantur; et iterum pluri tempore anima est in deceptione quam in cognitione veritatis, quia ad cognitionem veritatis vix pervenit post studium longi temporis. Et haec quidem ratio efficax est contra antiquos philosophos, qui ponebant cognitionem inesse animae ex sua natura, quasi anima ex hoc quod constituta est ex principiis habeat non solum quod sit in potentia ad cognoscibilia, sed quod sit actu cognoscens.
So he remarks, first, that the philosophers who explained knowledge by the likeness of the knower and the thing known should have also given some explanation of error; for error seems to be even more proper to animals than knowledge, according to the condition of their own nature. For we see that people can easily deceive themselves and commit errors, while to know the truth they need to be taught by others. Again, the soul is involved in error for a longer time than it spends in knowing the truth, for to acquire knowledge of the truth even a long course of study hardly suffices. Now, this argument is indeed valid against those early philosophers who regarded knowledge to be in the soul by its own nature, as though the soul was constituted of the first principles of things, not merely in potency to things that can be known, but actually knowing them.
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625. Potest ad hoc dupliciter responderi: uno modo ut dicatur quod antiqui philosophi non credebant aliquam deceptionem esse, ponebant enim quod omnia quae videntur sunt vera, ut supra dictum est, et ideo non oportebat quod assignarent causam deceptionis;
625. One could answer this in two ways. One might say that since the early thinkers did not admit the existence of error (their view being, as we have seen, that all that seemed to be was true), they did not need to explain error.1
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626. alio modo potest responderi quod, ex hoc ipso quod dicebant causam cognitionis esse ex hoc quod anima tangit id quod est sibi simile, datur intelligi quod causa deceptionis sit hoc quod anima tangit sibi dissimile. Hoc est ergo quod concludit quod, quia antiqui philosophi non assignaverunt causam deceptionis, inde necesse est quod aut omnia quae videntur sint vera, ut quidam dixerunt, aut quod tactus quo anima tangit rem dissimilem sit deceptionis causa: tangere enim dissimile videtur esse contrarium ad cognoscere sibi simile.
626. Second, it might be answered that to explain knowledge as a contact of the soul with what is like itself is implicitly to explain error as the soul’s contact with what is unlike itself. Hence, from the fact that the early thinkers did not explicitly render an account of error, he infers that either it must follow, either that all that seems so is true, as some have said, or that the contact whereby the soul touches something unlike itself is the cause of deception; since to touch the unlike seems to be the contrary of knowing like by like.
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627. Primum autem reprobatum est in IV Metaphysicae,
627. The first alternative is refuted in Metaphysics 4.1
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628. unde procedit ad inquirendum secundum, cum dicit: videtur autem etc. Manifestum est enim quod simile et dissimile sunt contraria; sed circa contraria eodem modo habet homo cognitionem et deceptionem, quia qui cognoscit unum contrariorum cognoscit reliquum et qui errat in uno errat in alio. Et hoc est quod dicit quod scientia et deceptio videtur eadem esse contrariorum. Non ergo est possibile quod tactus rei similis sit causa verae cognitionis et tactus rei dissimilis sit causa deceptionis, quia tunc esset scientia de uno contrariorum et deceptio de alio.
628. So he proceeds to examine the second alternative, at it would appear (427b5). The like and the unlike are obviously contraries. But man holds the knowledge and deception about contraries in the same way, for if you know one, you know the other; if you err about one, you err about the other. Hence he says that it would appear that error and knowledge are the same with respect to contraries. It follows that it is not possible that touching a like thing is the cause of true knowledge and touching an unlike thing a cause of error; for in that case one would know one of a pair of opposites and be mistaken about the other.
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629. Deinde cum dicit: quod quidem igitur etc., improbat positionem, ostendens quod neque sapere neque intelligere est idem quod sentire. Haec autem duo intellectivae cognitioni attribuuntur: intellectus enim habet iudicare, quod hic dicitur sapere, et apprehendere, quod hic dicitur intelligere.
629. Then, at therefore it should be evident (427b6), he attacks the theory in question, and shows that neither rational judgment nor understanding is the same as sensing; but these two belong to intellectual knowledge. For the intellect has a power to judge, which here is called “rational judgment” (sapere), and to apprehend, which here is called “understanding” (intelligere).
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Primo ergo ostendit quod sentire non sit idem quod sapere, tali ratione: sentire inest omnibus animalibus, sapere autem non inest omnibus, sed paucis; ergo sapere non est idem quod sentire. Dicit autem quod sapere inest paucis animalium, et non quod insit solis hominibus, quia etiam quaedam animalia participant aliquid prudentiae et alicuius sapientiae secundum quod recte iudicant de agendis per aestimationem naturalem.
First, therefore, he shows that judgment and sensation are not the same, arguing thus: sensation belongs to all animals, but rational judgment is found in but few; therefore they differ. And he says that rational judgment is found in few animals, and not that it is in man alone, because even certain brute animals participate in something of prudence and of a certain wisdom, in that they form correct judgments on what they need to do through their natural estimation.
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630. Secundo ibi: sed neque intelligere, probat quod intelligere non sit idem quod sentire per duo media.
630. Second, at nor again (427b8), he shows the difference between understanding and sensation; and this in two ways.
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Quorum primum tale est: intelligere contingit recte et non recte; recte quidem contingit intelligere secundum scientiam, quae est speculabilium et necessariorum, et secundum prudentiam, quae est recta ratio contingentium agibilium, et secundum opinionem veram, quae se habet ad utrumque, non tamen determinate ad alterum oppositorum sicut scientia et prudentia, sed ad unum cum formidine alterius; non recte autem contingit intelligere secundum contraria eorum, id est secundum falsam scientiam et secundum imprudentiam et secundum opinionem falsam; sentire autem non contingit non recte, quia sensus circa propria sensibilia semper verus est; ergo sentire et intelligere non sunt idem.
The first is as follows. Understanding may be correct or incorrect. Correct understanding happens in reference to science, which is about speculative and necessary truths; or in reference to prudence, which is right reasoning about contingent things that can be done; or in reference to true opinion, which is open to both alternatives, but without a determination to either of the opposites (as happens in science and prudence), but orients to one along with an anxiety about the other. Incorrect understanding is in each case the opposite of these, that is, in reference to a false science, or imprudence, or false opinion. Sensation, on the other hand, cannot happen incorrectly, for it is always true about the proper sensible objects. Therefore, sensation and understanding are not the same thing.
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631. Et quia posset aliquis dicere quod recte intelligere sit idem quod sentire, ideo adiungit aliud medium ad hoc excludendum, quod tale est: sentire inest omnibus animalibus, intelligere autem non, sed solum illis quibus inest ratio, scilicet hominibus qui per inquisitionem rationis apprehensionem veritatis intelligibilis consequuntur, quamvis substantiae separatae, quae sunt altioris intellectus, statim absque inquisitione veritatem intelligant; ergo etiam recte intelligere non est idem quod sentire.
631. And since it might be objected that correct understanding, at least, is the same as sensation, to exclude this he adds that sensation is found in all animals, whereas intelligence is not, but only in those wherein reason is present, that is, in men. For man reaches an apprehension of intelligible truth by way of rational inquiry; whereas the separated substances, which are in a higher degree intellectual, understand the truth immediately without any inquiry. Therefore, not even correct understanding is the same as sensation.
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632. Deinde cum dicit: phantasia enim etc., ostendit quod opinio, quae sequitur intellectum, sit aliud a phantasia, quae sequitur sensum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
632. Next, when he says, but imagination (427b14), he shows the difference between opinion, which follows intellect, and imagining, which follows sensation. And here he does two things.
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primo ostendit quod phantasia non est opinio;
First, he shows that imagining is not opinion.
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secundo inquirit quid sit phantasia, ibi: de eo autem quod est etc.
Second, he asks what imagining is, at concerning understanding (427b27; [637]).
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Circa primum tria facit.
The former subdivides into three parts.
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Primo proponit quod intendit. Et dicit quod ex hoc etiam apparet quod sensus et intellectus differunt, quia phantasia alterum aliquid est et a sensu et ab intellectu, et tamen phantasia non fit sine sensu, quia consequitur sensum, ut postea dicetur, et sine phantasia non fit opinio. Ita enim se videtur habere phantasia ad sensum sicut opinio ad intellectum; in rebus autem sensibilibus, cum aliquid sentimus, asserimus sic esse, cum autem secundum phantasiam aliquid videtur, non asserimus sic esse, sed sic videri vel apparere nobis (a visione enim vel apparitione sumitur nomen phantasiae, ut infra dicetur); et similiter circa intelligibilia, cum aliquid intelligimus, asserimus sic esse, cum autem opinamur, dicimus sic videri vel apparere nobis; sicut igitur intelligere requirit sensum, ita et opinari requirit phantasiam.
First, he states his aim, saying that another way to grasp the difference between sense and understanding is to consider that imagination is other than both sensation and understanding, yet it cannot occur without sensation because it follows it, as will be shown later, and without imagination there is no opinion.1 For it seems that, as imagining is to the senses, so is opinion to the understanding. When we sense any sensible object, we affirm that it is such and such; but when something is seen according to imagination, we make no such affirmation: we merely state that such and such seems or appears to us. (For the word “imagining” is taken from seeing or appearing.)2 Similarly, with regard to intelligible things: when we understand something, we affirm that it is such and such; but when we form opinions, we say that such and such seems or appears to us. Therefore, as understanding requires sensing, so opinion requires imagining.
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633. Secundo ibi: quod autem non est eadem etc., probat quod non sit idem phantasia et opinio, duabus rationibus.
633. In the second place, at it is evident (427b16), he proves by two arguments the difference between opinion and imagination.
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Quarum prima talis est: passio phantasiae est in nobis cum volumus, quia in potestate nostra est formare aliquid quasi apparens ante oculos nostros, ut montes aureos vel quicquid volumus, sicut patet de illis qui recordantur et formant sibi idola eorum quae sibi videntur ad votum; sed opinari non est in potestate nostra, quia necesse est quod opinans habeat rationem per quam opinetur vel verum vel falsum; ergo opinio non est idem quod phantasia.
The first argument is this. Imagination’s passion arises in us at will, for it is in our power to form something as though appearing before our eyes—golden mountains, for instance, or anything else we please, as people do when they reminisce and form for themselves icons of things that appear to them at will. But opinion is not within our power, since of necessity one who has an opinion has a reason on which it is based, whether true or false. Therefore opinion is not the same as imagination.
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634. Secundam rationem ponit ibi: amplius autem cum opinamur etc. Quae talis est: ex opinione statim sequitur passio in appetitu, quia, cum opinamur aliquid esse grave vel terribile, statim compatimur tristando vel timendo, et similiter si aliquid sit confidendum, id est de quo debeat aliquis confidere et sperare, statim sequitur spes vel gaudium; sed ad phantasiam non sequitur passio in appetitu, quia, dum apparet aliquid nobis secundum phantasiam, similiter nos habemus ac si consideraremus in pictura aliqua terribilia vel sperabilia; ergo opinio non est idem quod phantasia.
634. The second argument, at further, when (427b21), is this. Opinion has an immediate effect on the passions in our appetite; so when we opine that anything is grave or fearful, we are at once emotionally acted upon, either with grief or fear. Likewise if anything is an occasion of confidence, that is, it is something about which one should be confident or hopeful, we at once feel hopeful or glad. But a passion in the appetite does not follow upon imagining; for so long as anything appears to us merely in imagining, it is as though we were regarding in a picture frightening or encouraging objects. Therefore, opinion differs from imagining.
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635. Huius autem differentiae ratio est quia appetitus non patitur neque movetur ad simplicem apprehensionem rei qualem proponit phantasia, sed oportet quod apprehendatur sub ratione boni vel mali, convenientis vel nocivi, et hoc facit opinio in hominibus, componendo vel dividendo, cum opinamur hoc esse terribile vel malum, illud autem esse sperabile vel bonum, phantasia autem non componit nec dividit; patitur tamen appetitus animalium ab aestimatione naturali, quae hoc operatur in eis quod opinio in hominibus.
635. Now, the cause of this difference is that our appetite is not acted upon or moved by the simple apprehension of the sort of thing that imagination brings forth; rather, it is necessary that it be apprehended under the account of the good or evil, useful or harmful; and, in man, opinion brings this about by its composing or dividing, when we opine this thing is fearful or evil and that thing is hopeful or good; but imagination does not compose or divide. Nonetheless, in brute animals the appetite is acted upon by their natural estimation, which plays the same part in them as opinion in man.
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636. Tertio ibi: sunt autem etc., dicit quod, cum ad intellectualem acceptionem multa pertineant, scilicet scientia, prudentia opinio et contraria horum, de horum differentia non est hic agendum, sed alibi, scilicet in VI Ethicorum.
636. Third, at there are, besides (427b24), he remarks that because many things pertain to the intellectual judgment, such as science, prudence, and opinion, with their contraries, he does not intend to treat their differences here. They are dealt with elsewhere, in Ethics 6.1
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L. 29 (Γ.3, 427b27–428b9)Imagination: what it is not
Phantasiam distingui ab intellectu habitu, et ab ipso sensu multipliciter ostendit
Imagination: what it is not
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De eo autem quod est intelligere, quoniam alterum est ab eo quod est sentire, huius autem aliud phantasia esse videtur, aliud opinio, de phantasia determinantes sic et de altero dicendum est.
Concerning understanding, since it is one thing and sensation another, and of this, imagination seems to be one thing and opinion another, let us settle first what imagination is and then speak of the other matter.
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Si igitur phantasia est secundum quam phantasma aliquod nobis fieri dicimus, et si non aliquid secundum methaphoram dicimus, una quaedam est potentia harum aut habitus secundum quam discernimus aut verum aut falsum dicimus; huiusmodi autem sunt sensus, opinio, scientia, intellectus.
If, then, imagination is that by which we say that some phantasm arises within us, it follows (if we are not speaking metaphorically) that it is one of the powers or dispositions in virtue of which we discern and pronounce either falsely or truly. Such powers are sensation, opinion, knowledge, understanding.
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Quod quidem igitur non sit sensus, manifestum ex his est. Sensus quidem enim aut potentia aut actus est, ut visus et visio, phantasiatur autem aliquid et nullo horum existente, ut quae in somnis.
That it is not sensation, then, is evident. For sensation is either in potency or in act: the power of sight or the seeing. But appearances occur when neither of these is present, as when we dream.
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Postea sensus quidem semper adest, phantasia autem non.
Further, sensation is always found in all animals, but this is not so with imagination.
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Si vero ei qui actu idem, omnibus utique contingeret bestiis phantasiam inesse; videtur autem non, ut formice aut api aut vermi.
But if they were the same in act, it would happen that imagination was present in all beasts. But this apparently is not so: e.g., in the ant, the bee, the worm.
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Postea hii quidem veri semper, phantasiae autem plures false.
Again, sensations are always true, but many phantasms are false.
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Amplius autem non dicimus, cum operemur certe circa sensibile, quoniam videtur hoc nobis homo, sed magis cum non manifeste sentimus, tunc et aut verus aut falsus.
Again, we do not say, when we are functioning accurately with regard to sense-objects, that it seems to us to be a man; we say this rather when our sensation is indistinct, in which case it may be true or false.
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Et quod quidem diximus, apparent et dormientibus visiones.
And, as we said before, such visions appear to men in their sleep.
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At vero neque semper vera dicentium neque una erit, ut scientia aut intellectus; est enim phantasia et falsa.
And it is certainly not one of the things that are always truthful, such as knowledge or understanding; for imagination can be true or false.
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Relinquitur igitur videre si opinio: fit enim et opinio et vera et falsa. Sed opinioni quidem inheret fides (non enim contingit opinantem de quibus videtur non credere), bestiarum autem nulli inest fides, phantasia autem multis.
It remains, therefore, to consider whether it is opinion, for opinion can be either true or false. But belief follows immediately on opinion, for one never finds a man not believing the opinion that seems to him to be true. But there is no such thing as belief amongst beasts, although there is imagination in many.
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Amplius si omnem opinionem consequitur fides, fidem autem suasum esse, suasionem autem ratio; bestiarum autem quibusdam phantasia quidem inest, ratio vero non.
Further, belief follows all opinion and is due to conviction, which in turn is due to reasoning. Now, imagination is found in some beasts, but reason is found in none.
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Manifestum igitur quoniam neque opinio cum sensu, neque per sensum, neque complexio opinionis et sensus, erit phantasia, propter hoc.
It is therefore evident, on these grounds, that neither opinion accompanying sensation, nor through sensation, nor a combination of opinion and sensation, will constitute imagination.
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Et manifestum quod non alia quedam est opinio, sed illa quae quidem est cuius est et sensus, dico autem ex albi opinione et sensu complexio phantasia est; non enim ex opinione quidem est albi, ex sensu autem boni. Apparere igitur est opinari quod quidem sentitur, non secundum accidens.
And it is clear that opinion would have the same objects as sensation. I mean, that an imagining of white would be a combination of the sensed white and the opinion that it is white. For it would not be produced by an opinion of white and a sensation of good. To imagine, then, would be having an opinion of the same thing as what one senses—not accidentally.
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Apparent autem et falsa, de quibus simul acceptionem veram habent, ut videtur sol unius pedis, sed creditus est esse maior habitatione.
False appearances, however, are possible even while one holds a true opinion, such as that the sun seems to be a foot across yet is believed to be greater than the inhabited world.
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Accidit igitur aut abicere sui ipsius veram opinionem quam habebat, salva re, non oblitum neque decredentem. Aut, si adhuc habet, eandem necesse veram et falsam; sed falsa facta est cum lateat transcidens res. Non ergo unum aliquod horum est neque ex his phantasia.
Therefore, it comes about either that one discards the true opinion which one held, the thing itself remaining, and one neither forgets nor ceases to hold it. Or, if one still retains it, the same thing must be both true and false. But it becomes false if there is an unnoticed transformation in the facts. Imagination, therefore, is neither one of these, nor constituted from these.
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637. De eo autem quod est intelligere etc. Postquam philosophus ostendit quod phantasia non est opinio, hic incipit inquirere quid sit.
637. Concerning understanding (427b27). After saying that imagination is not the same as opinion, he begins to examine it in itself.
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Et primo dicit de quo est intentio;
First, he states the question to be treated;
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secundo prosequitur, ibi: si igitur phantasia est etc.
second, he pursues it, at if then (428a1; [638]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, cum ostensum sit quod intelligere est aliud quam sentire et ad unum eorum pertineat opinio, scilicet ad intellectum, ad aliud autem phantasia, scilicet ad sensum, postquam determinatum est de sensu, dicendum est de phantasia, ut sic postmodum determinetur de altero, id est de intellectu et opinione.
We have seen, he says, that understanding differs from sensation, and that opinion pertains to the former, but imagining to the latter;1 and now, having finished with the senses, it will be convenient to discuss imagination before tackling the other problems touching the intellect and opinion.2
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638. Deinde cum dicit: si igitur phantasia etc., quid sit phantasia. Et circa hoc duo facit:
638. Then, at if, then (428a1), he begins to treat of imagination. And about this he does two things.
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primo ostendit quod non est aliqua potentiarum vel habituum manifestorum, quae discernunt vel diiudicant verum et falsum;
First, he shows that the imagination is not any of those manifest powers or dispositions by which we discern or judge things to be true or false.
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secundo ostendit quid sit, ibi: sed quoniam est moto.
Second, at but since it can happen (428b10; [655]), he shows what in fact the imagination is.
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Circa primum tria facit:
The former section subdivides into three.
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primo distinguit potentias et habitus quibus aliquid discernitur;
First, he enumerates our various powers or modes of discernment;
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secundo ostendit quod phantasia non est aliquid eorum, ibi: quod quidem igitur non sit sensus etc.;
second, he shows that imagination is not one of these, at that it is not sensation (428a5; [641]);
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tertio quod non est aliquid compositum ex eis, ibi: manifestum igitur quoniam neque opinio etc.
and third, that it is not even a combination of any of them, at it is, therefore, evident (428a24; [651]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, cum phantasia sit secundum quam dicimus fieri nobis aliquod phantasma, id est aliquod apparibile, nisi forte accipiamus phantasiam metaphorice, necesse videtur quod phantasia sit aliquid de numero habituum vel potentiarum cognoscitivarum quibus discernitur unum ab alio aut quibus circa aliquid dicimus verum vel falsum, hoc est erramus vel non erramus (nam apparere aliquid est discernere et dicere vel verum vel falsum); potentiae autem vel habitus quibus discernimus et dicimus verum et falsum videntur esse haec quatuor: sensus, intellectus, scientia et opinio: unde videtur quod phantasia sit aliquid horum quatuor.
First, then, he observes that if it is through imagination that we say that some phantasm or appearance (unless the term “imagination” is taken metaphorically) arises within us, imagination necessarily seems to be one of those cognitive dispositions or powers by which one thing is discerned from another or by which we speak truly or falsely, that is, we err or we do not err. (That is, for something to appear is to discern it and to say either the true or the false.) Now, there seem to be four powers or dispositions from which such discernment or speaking of the true and false proceeds: sensation, understanding, science, and opinion. Imagination, then, seems to be one of these four.
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639. Ponit autem haec quatuor quasi iam nota: alia enim quae ad cognitionem pertinere videntur nondum erant suo tempore per certitudinem scita. Ipse autem iam superius distinxit intellectum a sensu; unde praeter sensum connumerat tria alia, scilicet intellectum, scientiam et opinionem; et videtur quod hic intellectus non accipiatur pro potentia (sic enim contra intellectum non dividerentur scientia et opinio, quae ad potentiam intellectivam pertinent), sed intellectus accipitur pro certa apprehensione eorum quae absque inquisitione nobis innotescunt, sicut sunt prima principia, scientia vero pro cognitione eorum de quibus certificamur per investigationem rationis, opinio autem pro cognitione eorum de quibus certum iudicium non habemus;
639. Aristotle mentions these four as being already familiar. Other things that seem to pertain to cognition were still, at the time he was writing, not defined with certainty. But having already distinguished sensation from the intellect, he can enumerate here three others distinct from sense: understanding, opinion, and science.1 Nor is he, apparently, taking “understanding” here as a power (i.e., the intellect); else it would not be set apart from science and opinion, which both belong to the intellectual power. But “understanding” means here the certain apprehension, without inquiry, that makes some things known to us, such as the first principles; “science,” on the other hand, means knowledge about those things about which we become certain through the investigation of reason, and “opinion” for knowledge of those things about which we do not have a certain judgment.
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640. unde etiam dicit quod phantasia est habitus vel potentia de numero horum, ad ostendendum quod inter haec aliquid est ut potentia et aliquid ut habitus. Cognoscere autem possumus quod haec tantum apprehensionis principia apud antiquos nota erant ex opinione Platonis superius in I libro posita, qui solum haec quatuor ad numeros reduxit, attribuens intellectum uni, scientiam dualitati, opinionem ternario, sensum quaternario.
640. And in calling imagination one of these dispositions or powers, he implies that among these there is something as a potency and something as a habit. Moreover, we can know that only these principles of apprehension were recognized by the ancients, based on the opinion of Plato that was presented above in the first book; for he reduced only these four to numbers—understanding to one, science to two, opinion to three, sense to four.1
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641. Deinde cum dicit: quod quidem igitur non sit etc., ostendit quod phantasia non est aliquid dictorum. Et circa hoc tria facit:
641. Next, when he says, that it is not (428a5), he distinguishes imagination from all the above four:
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primo ostendit quod non sit sensus;
first of all, from sensation;
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secundo quod non sit intellectus aut scientia, ibi: at vero neque semper etc.;
second, from understanding and science, at and it is certainly not (428a16; [648]);
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tertio quod non sit opinio, ibi: relinquitur igitur etc.
and third, from opinion, at it remains, therefore, to consider (428a18; [649]).
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Circa primum tria facit.
About the first, he does three things.
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Primo ostendit quod phantasia non sit sensus neque secundum potentiam neque secundum actum, et est ratio talis: dormiens aliquid phantasiatur; hoc autem non fit secundum sensum in potentia, quia sensui existenti in potentia nihil apparet, neque secundum sensum in actu, quia in somno non est sensus in actu; ergo phantasia neque est sensus in potentia neque est sensus in actu.
First, he shows that imagination is not one of the senses, either potentially or actually. For appearances occur during sleep. This cannot be due to any sense as in potency, in which state the senses are aware of nothing at all; nor to any sense as in act, for in sleep the senses are not in act. Therefore, imagination is neither a sense in potency nor a sense in act.
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642. Secundo ibi: postea sensus etc., ostendit quod phantasia non sit sensus in potentia, et est ratio talis: sensus in potentia semper adest animali, phantasia autem non semper, cum non semper animali aliquid appareat; ergo phantasia non est sensus in potentia.
642. Second, at further (428a8), he shows that imagination is not a sense in potency. And he argues as follows. Sensation in potency is always found in animals, but this is not always so with imagination, since things do not always appear to an animal. Therefore, imagination is not a sense in potency.
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643. Tertio ibi: si vero ei qui actu etc., ostendit quod phantasia non sit sensus secundum actum, quatuor rationibus.
643. Third, at but if (428a9), he shows imagination is not the senses as in act, and he gives four reasons for this.
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Quarum prima talis est: sentire secundum actum conveniunt omnibus bestiis, id est animalibus irrationalibus; si igitur phantasia esset idem quod sensus secundum actum, sequeretur quod inesset omnibus animalibus irrationalibus; hoc autem non est verum, non enim inest formicae aut api aut vermi; ergo phantasia non est sensus secundum actum.
The first of which is that actual sensing is found in all beasts, that is, irrational animals; therefore if actual sensation were the same thing as imagination, this would be found in all irrational animals, which in fact is not true; for the ant, the bee, and the worm do not have imagination. Therefore, imagination is not a sense in act.
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644. Considerandum est autem quod omnia animalia habent quodammodo phantasiam, sed animalia imperfecta habent phantasiam indeterminatam, sicut infra dicet philosophus. Sed hoc non videtur esse verum de formica et api, in quorum operibus plurimum prudentiae apparet; sed sciendum est quod opera prudentiae formica et apis operantur naturali inclinatione, non ex hoc quod habeant phantasiam determinatam et distinctam a sensu: non enim phantasiantur aliquid nisi dum moventur a sensibili; quod autem operantur propter finem quasi providentes in futurum, non contingit ex hoc quod habeant aliquam imaginationem illius futuri, sed imaginantur actus praesentes qui ordinantur ad finem ex naturali inclinatione magis quam ex apprehensione. Illa autem animalia dicit philosophus phantasiam habere quibus aliquid secundum phantasiam apparet etiam dum actu non sentitur.
644. But note that all animals have imagination in some measure, but the incomplete animals have an undetermined imagination, as the Philosopher will explain later.1 And this does not seem to be true for the ant and bee, in whose activities it is clear there is much prudence. But one should note that the ant and the bee perform the works of prudence by a natural inclination, not from their having a determined imagination and one distinct from sensation. For they only imagine so long as they are being moved by the sensible object. But the fact that they work for the sake of an end, as though providing for the future, does not arise because they have some imagination of that future; rather, they imagine their present activities, which are themselves ordered to the end due to the natural inclination more than due to any apprehension. On the other hand, the Philosopher says that those animals have imagination to whom something appears to them, in the imagination, even when they are not actually sensing it.
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645. Secundam rationem ponit ibi: postea hii etc., quae talis est: sensus secundum actum semper veri sunt (non enim sensus decipitur circa proprium sensibile), sed phantasiae ut plurimum sunt falsae (non enim respondet res imaginationi ut plurimum); ergo phantasia non est sensus secundum actum.
645. The second argument begins at again, sensations (428a11). The senses in the act of sensing are always true; for they cannot err about their proper objects. But phantasms are very often false, for things for the most part do not correspond to our imagination. Therefore, the imagination is distinct from every sense as in act.
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646. Tertiam rationem ponit ibi: amplius autem non dicimus etc., quae talis est: cum operamur secundum certitudinem circa sensibile actu, scilicet ipsum sentiendo, non dicimus quod hoc videtur nobis homo, sed magis hoc dicimus cum non manifeste sentimus, sicut cum a remotis aliquid videmus vel cum videmus aliquid in tenebris, et tunc sensus secundum actum aut est verus aut est falsus (circa sensibile enim per accidens, cuiusmodi sensibile est homo, non semper sensus verus est, sed quandoque decipitur). Addit autem hoc ut ostendat convenientiam inter sensum non manifestum et phantasiam, quae etiam quandoque est vera et quandoque est falsa: cum enim manifeste aliquid phantasiamur, dicimus quod hoc videtur nobis homo et non quod per certitudinem sit homo. Ergo phantasia non est idem quod sensus secundum actum.
646. The third argument comes at again, we do not say (428a12). When we are active with certainty with regard to sense-objects in act, that is, in sensing them, we never say, for example, that it seems to us to be a man. We say this rather when our sensation is indistinct, as when we see things at a distance or in the dark. And in which case the actual sensation is either true or false. (For as regards the accidentally sensible, man being an example of this, the sense is not always true; rather, sometimes it is deceived.) He adds this in order to show the affinity between imagination, which is sometimes true, sometimes false, and obscure sensations. For when it is clear that we are imagining something, we say that this appears to be a man and not that it is for certain a man. Therefore, imagination is distinct from any sense as in act.
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647. Quartam rationem ponit ibi: et quod quidem diximus etc., quae talis est: phantasticae visiones apparent dormientibus; in eis autem non est sensus secundum actum; ergo phantastica visio non est sensus secundum actum.
647. He gives the fourth reason at and, as we said before (428a15). Phantasms appear during sleep when the senses are not in act. Therefore, a phantasm is not an actual sensation.
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648. Deinde cum dicit: at vero etc., ostendit quod phantasia neque sit intellectus neque scientia; intellectus enim primorum principiorum et scientia de conclusionibus per demonstrationem acquisita semper sunt verorum; phantasia autem quandoque est falsa; ergo phantasia neque est scientia neque intellectus.
648. Next, when he says, and it is certainly (428a16), he shows the difference between imagination and both understanding and science. Understanding bears upon first principles, and science upon conclusions acquired through demonstration; and these are always true. But imagination is sometimes false; therefore imagination is neither understanding nor science.
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649. Deinde cum dicit: relinquitur igitur etc., ostendit quod phantasia non sit opinio, quod magis videbatur, quia opinio etiam quandoque est falsa, sicut et phantasia. Ostendit autem hoc duabus rationibus.
649. Then, at it remains (428a18), he shows that imagination is not opinion, which it might seem to be, for opinion too is sometimes false, like imagination. He shows this by two arguments.
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Quarum prima talis est: opinionem consequitur fides (non enim videtur esse contingens quod aliquis non credat illud quod opinatur), et sic, cum nulla bestia habeat fidem, nulli bestiarum inerit opinio; sed phantasia inest multis bestiarum, ut dictum est; ergo phantasia non est opinio.
First, the result of opinion is belief, for it does not seem to happen that someone should not believe his opinions. And thus, since no beast has belief, there will be no opinion amongst beasts. But many beasts, as he has said, have imagination. Therefore, imagination is not opinion.
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650. Secundam rationem ponit ibi: amplius si omnem opinonem, quae talis est: ad omnem opinionem consequitur fides, quia unusquisque credit illud quod opinatur, ut dictum est; sed ad fidem sequitur quod aliquis sit persuasus: ea enim credimus quae nobis sunt persuasa; ad persuasionem autem sequitur ratio (secundum ordinem illationis, quia per aliquam rationem aliquid alicui persuadetur); ergo, de primo ad ultimum, quicumque habet opinionem, habet rationem; nulla autem bestia habet rationem, cum tamen aliqua habeat phantasiam; ergo phantasia non est opinio. Et manifestum est quod haec secunda ratio inducitur ad confirmandum primam, quantum ad hoc quod prima supponebat quod nulla bestia habeat fidem.
650. He gives the second argument, at further, belief. Belief follows all opinion (428a22), as we have said, because everyone believes what he opines. And the state of being persuaded is the outcome of belief; for we believe those things of which we are persuaded. Now, persuasion is always accompanied by reasoning (according to the order of inference, since someone is persuaded of something through some argument); hence, from first to last, reasoning goes along with opinion. But while some beasts have imaginations, none of them have reason. Imagination, then, is distinct from opinion. Obviously, this argument confirms what the previous one assumes, that is, that beasts do not have belief.
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651. Deinde cum dicit: manifestum igitur quoniam neque opinio etc., ostendit quod phantasia non est aliquid compositum ex praemissis et praecipue ex sensu et opinione ex quibus magis posset videri esse composita. Et circa hoc tria facit.
651. Then, at it is therefore evident (428a24), he shows that imagination is not a combination of any of the things mentioned above, and more particularly, that it is not, as it might rather plausibly seem to be, a combination of sensation and opinion. And here he does three things.
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Primo ponit quod intendit, quasi ex praemissis concludens. Concludit ergo quod, quia phantasia neque est sensus neque opinio, manifestum propter hoc esse potest quod phantasia non est opinio cum sensu, ita quod essentialiter sit opinio et habeat sensum concomitantem, neque est opinio per sensum, ita quod essentialiter sit opinio sed habeat sensum causantem, neque est complexio opinionis et sensus, ita quod essentialiter componatur ex utroque. Non autem addit quod non sit phantasia sensus cum opinione, quia phantasia magis videtur convenire cum opinione, quae potest esse falsa, quam cum sensu, qui semper est verus.
First, he states his conclusion as a further inference from what has been said: since imagination is neither one of the senses nor opinion, it is therefore evident that it can be neither opinion accompanying sensation—that is, an opinion essentially, but with a concomitant sensation—nor opinion through sensation—that is, an opinion essentially, but caused by sensation—nor a combination of opinion and sensation, as though both were of its essence. He does not say that imagination is not sensation plus opinion, because it has apparently more to do with opinion, which can be false, than with sensation, which is always true.
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652. Secundo ibi: et manifestum quod non alia, ostendit qualiter oporteat accipi opinionem, si phantasia complectatur opinionem et sensum. Quia enim phantasia est unius et eiusdem, manifestum est quod opinio adiuncta sensui, quae est phantasia, non est alia quaedam opinio, sed illa quae est de eodem de quo est et sensus,
652. Second, at and it is clear (428a27), he shows what the term “opinion” would mean if it were true that imagination were a blend of sensation and opinion. For since an imagination is always of some one and the same thing, it is clear that the opinion that is conjoined with sensation, which is the imagination, would have the same objects as sensation.
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sicut si dicamus quod phantasia est quaedam complexio ex opinione albi et sensu eiusdem; non enim potest esse composita ex opinione albi et sensu boni, quia sic phantasia non esset de uno et eodem. Oportet igitur, si phantasia est ex complexione opinionis et sensus, quod apparere aliquid secundum phantasiam nihil aliud sit quam opinari id idem quod sentitur, secundum se et non secundum accidens.
It is as if one were to say, for example, that imagination is a certain combination of the sensed white and the opinion of the same thing; for it could not be a combination of an opinion of white and a sense of good, for then it would not be an imagination of one and the same thing. Then, if an imagination comes from a blending of opinion and sensation, then to imagine something in imagination must be nothing other than to have an opinion of the same thing as what one senses, in itself and not accidentally.
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653. Tertio ibi: apparent autem et falsa etc., destruit praedictam positionem, tali ratione: contingit aliquando quod aliqua falsa apparent secundum phantasiam, quae est a sensu, et de illis et de eisdem rebus homo habet veram opinionem, sicut secundum sensum apparet quod sol non excedit quantitatem unius pedis, quod est falsum, sed secundum veram opinionem creditur esse maior habitatione, id est tota terra in qua habitamus. Si igitur apparitio ipsa falsa sit idem quod opinio cum sensu, oportet alterum duorum dicere.
653. Third, at false appearances (428b2), he refutes the above hypothesis. For sometimes certain false appearances can arise from imagination, which is based on sensation, and about these things and the same realities a man holds a true opinion. Thus, it appears, according to our senses, that the sun measures only one foot across, which is false, yet by our true opinion we believe that it is greater than the inhabited world, that is, than the whole of our earth. Yet therefore, if the false appearance itself is the same thing as an opinion conjoined to sensation, one of two consequences must follow.
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Quorum unum est quod in ista compositione opinionis ad sensum aliquis abiiciat veram opinionem quam prius habebat, re opinata salva, id est eodem modo manente, et ille qui abiicit opinionem non sit oblitus neque decredat, quod est impossibile. Istis enim tribus modis aliquis amittit veram opinionem:
The first is that in the act of conjoining opinion and sensation we reject the true opinion which one held before, while the thing itself, of which we form our opinion, remains, that is, stays the same; and we who reject the opinion do not forget nor cease to be persuaded of that true opinion. But this is impossible; for there are only three ways in which a true opinion, once held, can be lost:
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primo, quando res mutatur, sicut cum aliquis vere opinatur quod Socrates sedet eo sedente, postquam Socrates sedere desierit, si retineat eamdem opinionem, vera opinio mutatur in falsam;
first, when the reality itself changes—as when we truly opine that Socrates is seated while he is seated, but if, when he ceases to sit, we retain that opinion, it changes from being a true opinion to being false;
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secundo, quando desinit opinari quod prius opinabatur propter hoc quod oblitus est pristinae opinionis;
second, when we cease to hold an opinion we once held because we forget it;
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tertio, quando desinit opinari quod prius opinabatur quia decredit quod prius credebat, immutatus propter aliquam rationem.
and third, when we cease to hold an opinion we once held because, for some new reason, we cease from thinking it to be true.
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Quod autem aliquis amittat veram opinionem nullo istorum contingente, est impossibile. Quod contingeret in proposito.
It is impossible to lose an opinion if none of these conditions is realized; and yet this is what the first alternative involves.
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654. Aliud autem quod oportet dicere, si primum non dicatur, est quod aliquis retineat cum falsa apparitione veram opinionem; et sic, si ipsa apparitio est ipsa opinio (quod necesse est ponere, si phantasia est opinio), sequetur quod eadem apparitio sit vera et falsa; sed oportet, si falsa facta est et non sit vera, quod res transcendens, id est transmutata ab ea quae prius erat, lateat opinantem, quia, si non lateret eum, simul cum mutatione rei mutaret opinionem et non esset eius opinio falsa. Hoc autem adiunxit ad exponendum quod prius dixerat de salvatione rei.
654. And there is only one other conceivable alternative, which is that the true opinion is retained along with the false appearance; and if the appearance itself is the opinion itself (which one must say if imagination is opinion), the same appearance is both true and false. But if it becomes false and is no longer true, then a transformation in the facts, that is, an alteration from what was before, must be hidden from him who holds the opinion; otherwise, were it not hidden from him, when the reality changes he would change his opinion, so his opinion would not be false. He adds this to explain his earlier remark about the reality remaining the same.
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Concludit ergo quod phantasia neque est aliquid praedictorum quatuor neque est composita ex his.
And his conclusion is that imagination is neither (428b2) one of the aforesaid four, nor any combination of them.
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L. 30 (Γ.3, 428b10–429a9)Imagination: what it is
Phantasiam esse motum factum a sensu secundum actum ostenditur: item phantasia nonnunquam vera, nonnunquam falsa, et cur phantasia dicatur, et quamobrem animalia secundum ipsam agere dicantur, exponit
Imagination: what it is
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Sed quoniam est moto hoc moveri alterum ab hoc, phantasia autem motus videtur esse et non sine sensu fieri, sed in his quae sentiunt et quorum sensus est, est autem motum fieri ab actu sensus, et hunc similem necesse est esse sensui, erit utique phantasia ipsa motus non sine sensu contingens neque non sentientibus inesse, et multa est secundum ipsam facere et pati habens, et esse veram et falsam.
But since it can happen that, one thing moving, another is moved by it; and imagination seems to be a movement, and to arise not without sensation and in sentient beings and to be of such objects as are sensed; and since a motion may be caused by actual sensation, and such necessarily resembles sensation, then imagination will be just this movement, never originated without sensation, nor capable of existing in non-sentient beings, enabling its possessor to act and to be acted upon in many ways, and being itself both true and false.
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Hoc autem accidit propter hoc: sensus propriorum quidem est verus aut quam paucissimum habens falsum. Secundo autem de accidere haec, et hic iam contingit mentiri: quod quidem enim album, non mentitur, si autem hoc album aut aliud, mentitur. Tertio autem communium et consequentium accidentia quibus insunt propria (dico autem ut motus et magnitudo accidunt sensibilibus), circa quae est maxime iam decipi secundum sensum.
This happens because sense-perception is true of its own proper objects or has the least possible amount of falsehood; but second, it bears on that in which these qualities inhere, and here it can right away be deceived. For it is not deceived about a thing being white or not, but it is deceived about whether the white is this thing or something else. Third, there is sensation of the common and consequent things, the accidents in which the proper qualities inhere (I mean such as movement and magnitude, which are accidental to sense-objects), and about these, deception very easily arises in sensing.
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Motus autem ab actu factus differt a sensu qui ab his tribus sensibus, et primus quidem presentis sensus verus, alii autem presentis et absentis erunt utique falsi, et maxime cum procul sit sensibile.
The movement derived from the act of sensation, however, differs from the sensation by which these three sensings occur. Although the first is true, the sensation itself being present, the others can easily be false, whether sensation be present or not, and especially when the sense-object is distant.
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Si quidem igitur nihil aliud habet quae dicta sunt nisi phantasia, haec autem est quod dictum est, phantasia utique erit motus a sensu secundum actum facto.
If, therefore, nothing except imagination possesses what has been described, then the statement is true, namely that imagination is a movement produced by sensation in act.
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Quoniam autem visus maxime sensus est, et nomen a lumine accepit, quoniam sine lumine non est videre.
Since sight is the greatest sense, imagination has taken its name from light, as there is no seeing without light.
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Et quoniam immanent et similes sunt sensibus, multa secundum ipsas operantur animalia, alia quidem quia non habent intellectum, ut bestiae, alia vero ex velamento intellectus aliquando passione aut aegritudine aut somno, ut homines.
And since these images dwell within and are like the senses, animals do many things in accordance with them; some animals because they do not have understanding, namely, beasts, but some too, i.e., men, when their understanding is for a time veiled by passion, or sickness, or sleep.
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De phantasia quidem igitur quid est et propter quid est, dictum sit in tantum.
Let what has been stated suffice, therefore, as to what imagination is and on account of what it exists.
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655. Sed quoniam est moto etc. Postquam philosophus ostendit quod phantasia non est aliquid illorum quatuor quae ab antiquis ad cognitionem pertinere ponebantur, hic inquirit quid sit phantasia. Et dividitur in partes duas:
655. But since it can happen that (428b10). After showing that imagination is not one of those four into which the earlier philosophers divided knowledge, the Philosopher now asks: what is imagination? And he does two things.
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in prima ostendit quid sit phantasia;
First, he shows what imagination is.
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in secunda assignat rationem eorum quae ad phantasiam pertinent, ibi: hoc autem accidit propter hoc.
Second, he explains the reason for the things that pertain to imagination, at this happens because (428b17; [660]).
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Ad investigandum autem quid sit phantasia, hoc modo procedit. Primo enim ponit quod, si aliquid est motum, contingit quod ab eodem aliquid aliud moveatur (ostensum est enim in VIII Physicorum quod est duplex movens, scilicet movens immobile et movens motum, quod scilicet movet in eo quod movetur);
And with a view to studying what imagination is, he lays it down that anything moved may itself move something else (recalling the argument in Physics 8, where it is shown that there are two kinds of mover, that is, the immobile mover, and the moved mover, that is, what moves another in its being in motion).1
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656. deinde proponit quod phantasia est quidam motus (sicuti enim anima sentiens movetur a sensibilibus, ita in phantasiando movetur a quibusdam apparentibus quae dicuntur phantasmata);
656. Then he suggests that imagination is a sort of movement: that just as the sensing soul is moved by sensible objects, so, in imagining, it is moved by certain appearances called “phantasms.”
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657. ulterius proponit affinitatem quam habet phantasia ad sensum, quia phantasia non potest fieri sine sensu, sed est tantum in habentibus sensum, scilicet in animalibus, et est illorum tantum quorum est sensus, scilicet illorum quae sentiuntur (ea enim quae sunt intelligibilia tantum non cadunt in phantasiam);
657. Next, he suggests an affinity between the imagination and the senses, in that imagination seems to arise not without sensation, and it is found only in sentient beings, that is, in animals, and that it bears only on things that are sensed; for things that are only intelligible do not fall within imagination.
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658. deinde proponit quod ab actu sensus contingit quemdam motum fieri, quod quidem manifestum fit ex eo quod primo proponebatur, scilicet quod ab eo quod est motum contingit moveri alterum, sensus autem secundum actum fit ex eo quod sensus movetur a sensibilibus, unde relinquitur quod a sensu secundum actum causetur aliquis motus; ex quo etiam manifestum est quod motus causatur ab actu sensus necesse est quod sit similis sensui, quia omne agens agit sibi simile, unde et id quod movet inquantum movetur causat motum similem motui quo ipsum movetur;
658. Then he suggests that a motion may be caused by actual sensation, which becomes in fact manifest from what was first laid down, that when a thing is moved, another thing might be moved by it. Actual sensation arises from the fact that a sense is being moved by sensible objects, so the sense in act causes some movement; and from this it is also manifest that the motion caused by the act of sensation must necessarily be like the sensation; for every agent is a cause of its own likeness. Whence that which, being moved, moves another, must also cause a motion like itself.
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659. ex omnibus autem his concludit quod phantasia sit quidam motus causatus a sensu secundum actum, qui quidem motus non est sine sensu neque potest inesse his quae non sentiunt, quia si aliquis motus fit a sensu secundum actum similis motui sensus et nihil aliud nisi sola phantasia invenitur esse tale, relinquitur quod phantasia sit huiusmodi motus; et ex hoc quod est motus causatus a sensu similis ei, sequitur quod contingat habentem phantasiam multa facere et pati secundum eam; et contingit eam esse veram et falsam, ut statim ostendetur.
659. And this leads him to the conclusion that imagination is a certain movement caused by the senses in their act of sensing, and this motion is never originated apart from sensation, nor can it exist in things that do not sense. For if there is any movement caused by actual sensation like the motion of sensation, and nothing other than imagination alone is found to be such, imagination must be this motion. And since it is a motion caused by sensation and is like it, it follows that what has imagination is able to act and to be acted upon in many ways. And it can be both true or false, as we shall see.
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660. Deinde cum dicit: hoc autem accidit etc., assignat rationem eorum quae conveniunt phantasiae, per ea quae dicta sunt. Et circa hoc tria facit:
660. Next, at this happens (428b17), he gives reasons for the characteristic properties of imagination, using the above analysis. And about this he does three things.
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primo assignat causam quare phantasia sit quandoque falsa et quandoque vera;
First, he gives a reason for his assertion that imagination is sometimes true and sometimes false.
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secundo assignat causam huius nominis, ibi: quoniam autem visus;
Second, he explains why it is called by this name, at since sight is the most prominent sense (429a2; [668]).
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tertio assignat causam eius quod dixerat, quod animalia multa agunt secundum phantasiam, ibi: et quoniam immanent etc.
Third, he explains why he said that animals do many things according to their imaginations, at and since these images dwell within (429a4; [669]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod hoc, scilicet phantasiam esse quandoque veram et quandoque falsam, accidit propter hoc quod dicetur, quia scilicet sensus a cuius actu causatur phantasia diversimode se habet ad veritatem et falsitatem secundum quod ad diversa comparatur.
First, then, he notes that this, that is, that imagination is sometimes true and sometimes false, happens because the sense, due to whose act the imagination is caused, stands in diverse relations to truth and falsity, insofar as it is related to diverse things.
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661. Nam primo quidem circa propria sensibilia semper est verus aut modicum habet de falsitate: sicut enim potentiae naturales non deficiunt a propriis operationibus nisi in minori parte propter aliquam corruptionem, sic et sensus non deficiunt a vero iudicio propriorum sensibilium nisi in minori parte propter aliquam corruptionem organi, ut apparet in febricitantibus quibus propter indispositionem linguae dulcia amara esse videntur.
661. For, in the first place, sense-perception is always true with respect to its proper objects, or at least it holds the minimum of falsehood; for natural powers do not fail in the activities proper to them, except for the lesser part, on account of some corruption. Thus, only in a minority of cases do the senses fall short of a true judgment of their proper objects, and then only through some corruption of the organ, for example, when people sick with fever taste sweet things as bitter because their tongues are ill-disposed.
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662. Secundo autem sensus est circa sensibilia per accidens, et hic iam decipitur sensus: quod enim album sit hoc quod videtur, non mentitur sensus, sed si album sit hoc aut illud, puta vel nix vel farina aut aliquid huiusmodi, hic iam contingit mentiri, et maxime a remotis.
662. Second, the senses have also their accidental sense-objects, and here right away they are deceived. For the sense is not deceived in this, namely, that the thing that is seen is white, but in whether the white thing is this or that thing (for example, whether it is snow or flour or something like this), here it can right away be deceived, especially by things at a distance.
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663. Tertio vero sensus est sensibilium communium quae consequuntur subiecta in quibus sunt accidentia quae sunt sensibilia propria (sicut magnitudo et motus, quae sunt sensibilia communia, accidunt corporibus sensibilibus), et circa huiusmodi maxime est deceptio, quia iudicium de his variatur secundum diversitatem distantiae: nam quod a remotiori videtur, minus videtur.
663. Third, there is sensation of common sensibles, which are consequent to the subjects in which are the accidents that are the proper sensibles. Thus, magnitude and movement, as common sensibles, are accidents of the sensible bodies. And deception very easily occurs for these, since in their case judgment varies dependent on distance, for a thing seen further away is seen less.
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664. Motus autem phantasiae qui est factus ab actu sensus differt ab istis tribus sensibus, id est actibus sensus, sicut effectus differt a causa, et propter hoc etiam, quia effectus est debilior causa et, quanto magis aliquid elongatur a primo agente, tanto minus recipit de virtute et similitudine eius, ideo adhuc in phantasia facilius quam in sensu potest incidere falsitas, quae consistit in dissimilitudine sensus ad sensibile (tunc enim est falsitas sensus quando aliter recipitur forma sensibilis in sensu quam sit in sensibili; et dico aliter secundum speciem, non secundum materiam, puta si sapor dulcis recipiatur in lingua secundum amaritudinem; secundum materiam vero semper aliter recipit sensus quam habeat sensibile); primus ergo motus phantasiae, qui fit a sensu propriorum sensibilium, est verus ut in pluribus, et hoc dico ad praesentiam sensibilis, quando motus phantasiae est simul cum motu sensus
664. The movement of imagination, being derived from the act of sensation, differs from these three sensings, that is, the acts of the senses, as an effect differs from its cause. On account of this also, because an effect is weaker than its cause, to the extent that something is more distant from the first agent, so too does it receive less of the power and likeness of it; therefore imagination is even more liable than are the senses to fall into error, which consists in a dissimilarity between the sense and its object. For falsehood in the senses consists in receiving a sensible form as other than it is in the sensible object. I mean other in species, not in matter (for example, if a sweet savor is received in the tongue as bitter); for in matter there is always a difference between the form as received in the sense and the form as in the object. It follows first, from what we have said, that a motion of imagination that arises from a sensation of the proper sense-objects is for the most part true; I mean, at least, so long as the sensible object is present, when the movement of imagination is simultaneous with the movement of sensation.
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665. (sed quando motus phantasiae est in absentia sensus, tunc etiam circa propria sensibilia contingit decipi: imaginatur enim quandoque absentia ut alba, licet sint nigra); sed alii motus phantasiae, qui scilicet causantur a sensu sensibilium per accidens et a sensu sensibilium communium, possunt esse falsi, sive sit praesens sensibile sive non, sed maxime sunt falsi in absentia sensibilis, quando est procul.
665. But when the movement of imagination occurs in the absence of sensation, we can be deceived, even with regard to proper sensibles. For we may imagine absent black things as white. But the others, that is, the movements of imagination caused by the sensation of accidentally sensible things or of common-sensibles, can be false whether the sensible object be present or not; although they are especially liable to be false in the absence of the sensible object, when it is distant.
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666. Ex hac autem ratione assignata concludit ulterius principale propositum, dicens quod, si ea quae dicta sunt non conveniunt nisi phantasiae et phantasia habet quod dictum est, relinquitur quod phantasia sit motus a sensu factus in actu.
666. From this argument, he then draws a conclusion touching his main contention: namely, if nothing possesses what has been described, except the imagination, and imagination has what was said, then imagination is the movement produced by sensation in act.
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667. Utrum autem iste motus aliam potentiam requirat quam sensitivam, Aristoteles hoc non determinat.
667. Whether this movement also requires some potency other than the sensitive power is a question which Aristotle leaves unanswered.
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Sed [videtur quod], cum secundum diversitatem actuum distinguantur potentiae et diversitas motus requirat diversa mobilia, quia quod movetur non movet seipsum sed alterum, necessarium videtur quod sit alia potentia phantastica sive imaginativa a sensu.
Since, however, diverse acts imply diverse potencies, and diverse movements connote diverse receivers of movement (for the moving thing moves something other than itself), it seems necessary to posit an imaginative (or fantasy) power distinct from the senses.
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668. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem visus, assignat causam huius nominis. Circa quod sciendum est quod phos in Graeco idem est quod lux; et inde venit phanos, quod est apparitio vel illuminatio, et phantasia. Dicit ergo quod, quia visus est praecipuus inter alios sensus eo quod est spiritualior, ut supra ostensum est, et plurium cognoscitivus, ideo phantasia, quae causatur a sensu secundum actum, accipit nomen a lumine, sine quo non contingit videre, ut supra dictum est.
668. Next, at since sight (429a2), he explains the reason for the name phantasia (imagination). Note that phos is the Greek for light, whence comes phanos, that is, “appearance” or “enlightening,” and phantasia. He says, then, that, because sight is the chief among the senses, being more spiritual (as we have seen already), and knowing a wider range of objects than any other, therefore imagination, which is caused by actual sensation, has taken its name from light, as there is no seeing without light.1
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669. Deinde cum dicit: et quoniam immanent etc., ostendit causam quare animalia agant et patiantur secundum phantasiam. Et dicit quod phantasiae immanent, id est perseverant, etiam abeuntibus sensibilibus, et sunt similes sensibus secundum actum (unde, sicut sensus secundum actum movet appetitum apud praesentiam sensibilis, ita et phantasia in absentia sensibilis), et propter hoc dicit quod animalia multa operantur secundum phantasias, sed hoc contingit in defectu intellectus, quia cum intellectus adest, quia est superior, eius iudicium praevalet ad agendum;
669. Then, at and since these images (429a4), he explains why animals act and are acted upon according to imagination. Images, he says, dwell within, that is, they endure, even in the absence of sensible objects, and are like the senses in act; therefore, just as actual sensation moves the appetite at the presence of the sensible object, so even do images in the absence of the sensible object. And therefore he says that animals do many things in accordance with images. Nevertheless, this happens through their lack of understanding, since when intellect is present, being a higher power, its judgment prevails in practice.
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670. unde, quando intellectus non dominatur, agunt animalia secundum phantasiam, alia quidem quia omnino non habent intellectum, sicut bestiae, alia quidem quia habent velatum intellectum, sicut homines, quod contingit tripliciter:
670. Hence, so long as the intellect is not in command, animals act according to imagination: some animals because they do not have understanding at all, for example, the beasts, but some because they have a veiled intellect, for example, in men. And this happens in three ways:
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quandoque quidem ex aliqua passione, irae aut concupiscentiae vel timoris aut aliquid huiusmodi,
when they fall into some passion, such as anger, desire, fear, etc.;
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quando est ita fortis quod obnubilat intellectum; quandoque autem accidit ex aliqua infirmitate, sicut patet in phreneticis vel furiosis;
when something is so strong that it clouds the intellect, which sometimes happens through some infirmity, as is clear in delirium or in a rage;
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quandoque autem a somno, sicut accidit in dormientibus:
and when they are asleep and dreaming.
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ex istis enim causis contingit quod intellectus non praevalet phantasiae, unde homo sequitur apparitionem phantasticam quasi veram.
In these cases, it is possible for the intellect to not prevail over the imagination, with the result that men follow their imaginary representations as true.
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Ultimo autem concludit quod dictum est de phantasia quid sit et quae sit causa eius.
In conclusion, he says that he has now stated on imagination (429a8) what it is and its cause.
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Bk. 3Intellect and MovementDe intellectu; de vi motiva; de communibus omnium animatorum facultatibus
L. 1 (Γ.4, 429a10–429b4)The intellect in general
Quamquam intelligere sit sicut sentire, intellectum tamen esse omnino distinctum a sensu probat, eumque omnino incorporeum et immixtum, et impassibile, differenter tamen a sensu, declarat: quod item non sit substantia separata demonstrat
The intellect in general
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De parte autem animae qua cognoscit anima et sapit, sive separabili existente sive non separabili secundum magnitudinem sed secundum rationem, considerandum quam habet differentiam et quomodo quidem fit ipsum intelligere.
As to the part of the soul by which it knows and judges (whether being separable according to magnitude or not separable according to magnitude but only in account), we must consider how it differs and, further, how understanding itself arises.
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Si igitur est intelligere sicut sentire, aut pati aliquid utique erit ab intelligibili aut aliquid huiusmodi alterum. Inpassibilem ergo oportet esse, susceptivam autem speciei et potentia huiusmodi sed non hoc, et similiter se habere, sicut sensitivum ad sensibilia, sic intellectum ad intelligibilia.
For if understanding is like sensing, it will be some kind of being acted upon by the intelligible object or some thing of that sort. It must, then, be impassible and yet receptive of a species, and in potency for such, but not this; and as the sense power stands to the sense-object, so will the intellect to the intelligible.
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Necesse est itaque, quoniam omnia intelligit, inmixtum esse, sicut dicit Anaxagoras, ut imperet, hoc autem est ut cognoscat. Intus apparens enim prohibebit extraneum et obstruet. Quare neque ipsius esse naturam neque unam, sed aut hanc quod possibilis. Vocatus itaque animae intellectus (dico autem intellectum quo opinatur et intelligit anima) nihil est actu eorum quae sunt ante intelligere.
It is also necessary, since it understands all things, that it be unmixed, as Anaxagoras says, “so that it may command,” i.e., that it may know. For what appears inwardly would prevent and impede what was without. Hence it has no nature and is not one, except in being potential. What, then, is called the intellect of the soul (I mean that intellect by which the soul understands and forms opinions) is, in act, none of the things that exist before it understands.
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Unde neque misceri est rationabile ipsum corpori: qualis enim aliquis utique fiet aut calidus aut frigidus, si organum aliquod erit, sicut sensitivo; nunc autem nullum est.
Hence, it is a reasonable inference that it is not mixed with the body. Were it so, it surely would also receive some quality, either hot or cold, if there were some organ for it, like for a sensitive power; but there is in fact none such.
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Et bene iam dicentes sunt animam esse locum specierum, nisi quod non tota, sed intellectiva, neque actu, sed potentia species.
And now, they spoke well who said that the soul was the place of species—yet not the whole soul, but the intellectual part; nor actually, but only potentially, is it any species.
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Quoniam autem non similis sit impassibilitas sensitivi et intellectivi, manifestum est ex organis et sensu.
That the impassibility of the sensitive power is not like that of the intellectual power is evident from the organs and from sensation itself.
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Sensus enim non potest sentire ex valde sensibili, ut sonum ex magnis sonis, neque ex fortibus odoribus et coloribus neque videre neque odorare;
For the sense cannot sense too strong a sense-object, e.g., a sound from very great sounds, while on account of some odors and colors being very powerful, one does not smell or see them.
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sed intellectus, cum intelligit aliquid valde intelligibile, non minus intelligit infima, sed magis; sensitivum quidem enim non sine corpore est, hic autem separatus est.
But when the intellect understands something highly intelligible, it does not understand lower things less, but more. For whereas the sensitive power is not without the body, the intellect is separate.
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671. De parte autem animae. Postquam philosophus determinavit de parte animae sensitiva et ostendit etiam quod sentire et intelligere non sunt idem, hic incipit determinare de parte animae intellectiva. Et dividitur in partes duas:
671. As to the part of the soul (429a10). Having treated of the sensitive part of the soul, and shown that to sense and to understand are quite distinct activities, the Philosopher now turns to the intellectual part of the soul. His treatment falls into two main divisions.
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in prima determinat de parte animae intellectiva;
First, he comes to certain conclusions on the intellectual part in general.
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in secunda, ex his quae determinata sunt de sensu et intellectu, ostendit quid sit de anima sentiendum, ibi: nunc autem de anima dicta recapitulantes etc.
Second, from what has been concluded about sense and intellect, he deduces, at now recapitulating (431b20; [787]), some necessary consequences with regard to the soul as a whole.
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Prima dividitur in partes duas:
The former division falls into two sections.
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in prima determinat de intellectu;
In the first, he makes determinations about the intellect as such.
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in secunda comparat ipsum ad sensum, ibi: videtur autem sensibile etc.
In the second, at and it appears that the sense-object (431a4; [765]), he compares the intellect with the senses.
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Prima dividitur in duas:
The first divides into two parts.
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in prima determinat de intellectu;
In the first, the intellect is treated in itself.
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in secunda de operatione eius, ibi: indivisibilium quidem igitur intelligentia etc.
In the second, at the intellectual grasping of indivisible things (430a26; [746]), the intellect is treated according to its activity.
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Prima dividitur in tres:
The former part then subdivides again into three parts.
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in prima determinat de intellectu possibili;
First, he determines about the potential intellect;1
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in secunda de intellectu agente, ibi: quoniam autem sicut in omni;
second, about the agent intellect, at now, since in all nature (430a10; [728]);
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in tertia de intellectu in actu, ibi: idem autem est secundum actum.
third, about the intellect in act, at but knowledge in act (430a19; [740]).
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Circa primum tria facit:
Concerning the first, he does three things.
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primo determinat de intellectu possibili;
First, he determines the potential intellect;
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secundo de obiecto eius, ibi: quoniam autem aliud est magnitudo etc.;
second, he determines its object, at now, as magnitude is one thing (429b10);
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tertio movet dubitationem circa praedeterminata, ibi: dubitabit autem aliquis.
and third, he adduces an objection, at one might well inquire (429b22).
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Circa primum duo facit:
The determination of the potential intellect is in two parts.
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primo ostendit naturam intellectus possibilis;
First, he explains the nature of the potential intellect.
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secundum ostendit quomodo reducatur in actum, ibi: cum autem sic singula.
Second, he explains the way it is reduced to act, at but when it becomes particular objects (429b5; [700]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
And as to its nature, he does two things:
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primo dicit de quo est intentio;
first, he states the problems he is attempting to solve;
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secundo ostendit propositum, ibi: si igitur est intelligere etc.
second, at for if understanding is like sensing (429a13), he shows what he proposes.
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672. Dicit ergo primo quod, postquam determinatum est de parte animae sensitiva et ostensum est quod sapere et intelligere non est idem quod sentire, considerandum est nunc de parte animae qua cognoscit anima, id est intelligit, et sapit; supra autem dictum est quod differt inter sapere et intelligere: nam sapere pertinet ad iudicium intellectus, intelligere autem ad eius apprehensionem.
672. So he says that, having dealt with the sensitive part of the soul, and having shown that judgment and understanding differ from sensation, it is now time to consider that part of the soul by which it knows (429a10), that is, understands, and judges. We have already distinguished between rational judgment and understanding: for to judge rationally pertains to the judgment of the intellect, but to understand pertains to its apprehension.1
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673. Circa hanc autem partem aliquid est quod praetermittit, de quo erat apud antiquos dubium, utrum scilicet haec pars animae sit separabilis ab aliis partibus animae subiecto sive non sit separabilis subiecto sed ratione tantum; intelligit autem esse separabile subiecto per hoc quod dicit esse separabile secundum magnitudinem, propter Platonem qui, ponens partes animae subiecto ad invicem separatas, attribuit eis organa in diversis partibus corporis; hoc est ergo quod praetermittit.
673. At this point, an old problem emerges (which Aristotle for the time being sets aside), namely, whether this part of the soul is separable as a subject from the other parts of the soul, or is not separable as a subject but only in its account. He understands separability in subject when he speaks of its being separable according to magnitude, because Plato, asserting that the soul’s parts are separate from each other in subject, associated them with different organs of the body. This problem Aristotle sets aside.
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674. Sed duo sunt quae inquirere intendit, quorum primum est, si sit separabilis secundum rationem haec pars animae ab aliis, quam differentiam habet ad alias; et quia proprietas potentiae ex qualitate actus cognoscitur, secundum quod inquirere intendit est quomodo sit ipsum intelligere, id est quomodo operatio intellectualis compleatur.
674. And he keeps two ends in view. One is to examine how this part of the soul differs from the others, if it can be separated from them in account. And, as the property of a power is known from the quality of its act, his second aim is to examine how understanding itself arises, that is, how intellectual activity is completed.
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675. Deinde cum dicit: si igitur est intelligere, ostendit propositum. Et circa hoc tria facit:
675. Next, at for if understanding (429a13), he presents what he proposes in three stages:
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primo proponit similitudinem intellectus ad sensum;
first, he suggests a similarity between intellect and sense;
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secundo ex huiusmodi similitudine concludit naturam possibilis intellectus, ibi: necesse est itaque;
second, he argues, at it is also necessary (429a18; [677]), to a conclusion touching the nature of the potential intellect;
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tertio ostendit ex his quae de intellectu probaverat differentiam inter intellectum et sensum, ibi: quoniam autem non similis sit etc.
third, he in turn deduces a difference between intellect and sense, at that the impassibility (429a29; [587]).
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Primum igitur ex cuius suppositione procedit ad propositum ostendendum est quod intelligere est simile ei quod est sentire, quae quidem similitudo ex hoc manifesta est quod, sicut sentire est quoddam cognoscere et sentimus quandoque quidem in potentia quandoque autem in actu, sic et intelligere cognoscere quoddam est et quandoque quidem intelligimus in potentia quandoque in actu; ex hoc autem sequitur quod, cum sentire sit quoddam pati a sensibili aut aliquid simile passioni, quod intelligere sit vel pati aliquid ab intelligibili vel aliquid alterum huiusmodi, simile scilicet passioni;
First of all, then, to show what was proposed, he starts on the supposition that understanding and sensing are similar; he manifests this likeness by noting that just as sensing is a certain knowing, and we of course sometimes sense in potency and sometimes in act, so too, understanding is a certain knowing, and sometimes we understand in potency and sometimes in act. Whence it follows that, as sensing is a certain being acted upon by a sensible object (or is something like a passion), so understanding is either some kind of being acted upon by the intelligible object or something of that sort, that is, like a passion.
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676. horum autem duorum secundum verius est: nam sentire, ut supra in II dictum est, non proprie pati est (patitur enim proprie aliquid a contrario), sed habet aliquid simile passioni inquantum sensus est in potentia ad sensibile et est susceptivus sensibilium. Ergo, si intelligere est simile ei quod est sentire, et partem intellectivam oportet esse impassibilem passione proprie accepta, sed oportet quod habeat aliquid simile passibilitati, quia oportet huiusmodi partem esse susceptivam speciei intelligibilis et quod sit in potentia ad huiusmodi speciem sed non sit hoc in actu, et sic oportet, sicut se habet sensitivum ad sensibilia, similiter se habere intellectivum ad intelligibilia, quia utrumque est in potentia ad suum obiectum et est susceptivum eius.
676. Of these alternatives, the second is the more true. For even sensing, as we have seen in Book II, is not properly speaking a being acted upon—for being acted upon, properly speaking, involves something coming from its contrary.1 Yet sensing resembles a passion inasmuch as the sense is potential with respect to its sensible object, and it is receptive of sensibles. Then, if understanding resembles sensing, the intellectual part too must be impassible (taking “passion” properly), yet it must have some likeness to passibility, for it must be receptive to an intelligible species; and it must be in potency for such a species, but not this in act. And thus it must be the case that as the sense power stands to the sense-object, so will the intellect to the intelligible, each being potential with respect to its own object and able to receive that object.
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677. Deinde cum dicit: necesse est itaque, ex praemissis ostendit naturam intellectus possibilis. Et circa hoc duo facit:
677. Then, at it is also necessary (429a18), he proceeds to deduce the nature of the potential intellect. And about this he does two things.
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primo ostendit quod intellectus possibilis non est aliquid corporeum vel commixtum ex rebus corporalibus;
First, he shows that the potential intellect is not a bodily thing nor compounded of bodily things;
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secundo ostendit quod neque habet organum corporale, ibi: unde neque misceri etc.
second, at hence it is a reasonable (429a24; [684]), he shows that it has no bodily organ.
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Considerandum est ergo circa primum quod antiqui circa intellectu dupliciter opinati sunt: quidam posuerunt quod intellectus erat compositus ex principiis omnium ad hoc quod cognosceret omnia, et hanc supra dixit esse opinionem Empedoclis; Anaxagoras vero dixit intellectum esse simplicem et immixtum et nulli rerum corporalium habere aliquid commune. Ex eo ergo quod dictum est quod intellectus non est actu intelligibilia sed potentia tantum, concludit quod necesse est intellectum, propter hoc quod intelligit omnia in potentia, non esse mixtum ex rebus corporalibus sicut Empedocles posuit, sed esse immixtum sicut dixit Anaxagoras;
As to the first point, we should note that there used to be two opinions about the intellect. Some—and this, as we have seen, was the view of Empedocles—thought that intellect was a composition of the principles of all things so that it could know all things.1 On the other hand, Anaxagoras thought it was simple and unmixed and had nothing in common with any bodily realities. And therefore, precisely because the intellect, as he has just said, is not actually the intelligible objects, but only potentially, he concludes that it is necessary that the intellect, on account of the fact that it understands all things, cannot be composed of bodily things, as Empedocles thought, but must be unmixed, as Anaxagoras thought.
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678. sed Anaxagoras hoc dixit hac ratione motus, quia posuit intellectum esse principium totius motus a quo omnia moventur secundum eius imperium, si autem esset mixtus ex naturis corporalibus vel haberet aliquam earum determinate, non posset omnia movere suo imperio, quia determinaretur ad unum, et hoc est quod dicit quod Anaxagoras posuit intellectum esse immixtum ut imperet, id est ut suo imperio omnia moveat;
678. But the reason why Anaxagoras thought this was that he regarded intellect as the principle of the whole of motion, one by which all things are moved according to its command, but if it were mixed of the bodily natures or had any of them in a determinate way, it could not move all things by its command; for it would be determined to one thing. Hence Aristotle’s observation that, in Anaxagoras’s view, the intellect was unmixed so that it may command, that is, so that it might move all things by its own command.
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679. sed quia nos nunc non loquimur de intellectu qui omnia movet, sed de intellectu qui omnia intelligit, istud medium non est nobis opportunum ad ostendendum intellectum esse immixtum, sed oportet aliud medium accipere ad idem ostendendum, ex hoc scilicet quod intellectus omnia cognoscit, et hoc est quod addit: hoc autem est ut cognoscat, quasi dicat: sicut Anaxagoras posuit intellectum esse immixtum ut imperet, ita oportet nos ponere intellectum immixtum ad hoc quod cognoscat.
679. But since we are not concerned at present with the intellect that moves all things, but with an intellect that understands all things, this middle term is not relevant to showing that the intellect is unmixed with bodily things; rather, one needs to take a middle term for showing this based on the intellect’s knowing all things. That is why Aristotle adds, that it may know, as if to say: “as Anaxagoras maintained that intellect was unmixed so that it may command, so we assert that it is unmixed so that it might know.”
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680. Et hoc quidem tali ratione apparet: omne enim quod est in potentia ad aliquid et receptivum eius caret eo ad quod est in potentia et cuius est receptivus, sicut pupilla quae est in potentia ad colores et receptiva eorum est absque omni colore; sed intellectus noster sic intelligit intelligibilia quod est in potentia ad ea et susceptivus eorum sicut sensus sensibilium; ergo caret omnibus illis rebus quas natus est intelligere; cum igitur intellectus noster sit natus intelligere omnes res sensibiles et corporeas, oportet quod careat omni natura corporali, sicut sensus visus caret colore propter hoc quod est cognoscitivus coloris: si enim haberet aliquem colorem, ille color prohiberet videri alios colores; sicut lingua febrientis quae habet aliquem humorem amarum non potest percipere dulcem saporem, sic et intellectus, si haberet aliquam naturam determinatam, illa natura sibi connaturalis prohiberet eum a cognitione aliarum naturarum.
680. The following argument makes this point clear. Anything that is in potency with respect to an object and able to receive it lacks that object; thus, the pupil of the eye, being potential to colors and able to receive them, is itself colorless. But our intellect understands intelligible objects in such a way that it is in potency with respect to them and capable of receiving them (just as sense is of sensible objects). Therefore it lacks all those things that it is naturally apt to understand. Since, then, our intellect is naturally apt to understand all sensible and bodily things, it must lack every bodily nature, just as the sense of sight, because it is able to know color, lacks color. For if sight had any color, this color would prevent it from seeing other colors; just as the tongue of a feverish man, being coated with a bitter fluid, cannot perceive a sweet flavor, so too, if the intellect possessed any determinate nature, this connatural nature would prevent it from knowing other natures.
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Et hoc est quod dicit: intus apparens enim prohibebit cognoscere extraneum et obstruet, id est impediet intellectum et quodammodo velabit et claudet ad inspectione aliorum; et appellat intus apparens aliquid intrinsecum connaturale intellectui, quod dum ei apparet semper impeditur intellectus ab intelligendo alia, sicut si diceremus quod humor amarus est intus apparens linguae febrienti.
This is why he says, what appears inwardly would prevent and impede its knowledge of what is without, that is, it would get in the way of the intellect, and in a way veil it and impair its inspection of other things. He names that which “appears inwardly” anything internal that is connatural to the intellect, that which, so long as it appeared therein, would always impede the understanding of other things, as we might say that the bitter fluid is what appears inwardly to the fevered tongue.
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681. Concludit autem ex hoc quod non contingit naturam intellectus esse neque unam, id est nullam, determinatam, sed hanc solam naturam habet quod est possibilis respectu omnium. Et hoc quidem contingit intellectui quia non est cognoscitivus tantum unius generis sensibilium sicut visus vel auditus, vel tantum qualitatum et accidentium sensibilium communium vel propriorum, sed universaliter totius naturae sensibilis; unde, sicut visus caret genere quodam sensibilium, ita oportet quod intellectus careat tota natura sensibili.
681. From this, he concludes that it is not possible that there be a nature of the intellect, nor that it be one, that is, it has no determinate nature, except that its nature is to be potential to all things. And this is the case for intellect because it is capable of knowing, not merely one genus of sensible objects (like sight and hearing), nor even all qualities and sensible accidents, whether these be common or proper sense-objects, but universally the whole of sensible nature. Therefore, just as sight lacks a certain genus of sensible objects, so must the intellect lack the whole of sensible nature.
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682. Ex hoc autem ulterius concludit quod ille qui vocatur intellectus animae nihil est in actu eorum quae sunt ante intelligere, quod est contrarium ei quod antiqui ponebant: dicebant enim eum ad hoc quod cognosceret omnia esse compositum ex omnibus; si autem ideo esset cognoscitivus omnium quia haberet in se omnia, esset semper intellectus in actu et nunquam in potentia, sicut supra dixit de sensu quod, si esset compositus ex sensibilibus, non indigeret sensibilibus exterioribus ad sentiendum.
682. He concludes further that what we call the intellect of the soul is, in act, none of the things that exist before it understands. This is contrary to the early philosophers’ assertion that intellect must be compounded of all things so that it can know all things. But if it knew all things because it has them all in itself, the intellect would always be in act and never in potency, in the same way he has remarked already of the senses, that if they were composed of the sensible objects, they would not require any exterior sensible objects in order to sense.1
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683. Et ne quis crederet hoc esse verum de quolibet intellectu quod sit in potentia ad sua intelligibilia antequam intelligat, interponit quod nunc loquitur de intellectu quo anima opinatur et intelligit; et hoc dicit ut praeservet se ab intellectu dei, qui non est in potentia, sed est quodammodo actus omnium, de quo intellectu Anaxagoras dixit quod est immixtus ut imperet.
683. And lest anyone should suppose this to be true of every intellect, that it is in potency to its objects before it knows them, he adds that he is speaking here of the intellect by which the soul understands and forms opinions. Thus he excludes from this context the intellect of God, which is not in potency, but rather is in a certain way the act of all things—of which intellect Anaxagoras said that it is unmixed so that it might command.
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684. Deinde cum dicit: unde neque misceri, ostendit quod intellectus non habet organum corporale.
684. Next, at hence it is a reasonable (429a24), he shows that the intellect has no bodily organ.
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Et primo ostendit propositum;
First, he shows what he proposed.
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secundo adaptat ad hoc dictum quoddam antiquorum, ibi: et bene iam etc.
Second, at and now, they spoke well (429a27), he approves a saying of the early philosophers.
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Dicit ergo primo concludens ex praedictis quod, si intellectus noster ad hoc quod cognoscat omnia oportet quod non habeat aliquam naturam determinatam ex naturis rerum corporalium quas cognoscit, eodem modo rationabile est quod non misceatur corpori, id est quod non habeat aliquod organum corporale, sicut habet pars animae sensitiva, quia, si erit aliquod organum corporale intellectui sicut est parti sensitivae, sequetur quod habeat aliquam naturam determinatam ex naturis rerum sensibilium; et hoc est quod dicit quod sequetur quod erit aliquis qualis, id est aliquam qualitatem sensibilem habens, ut scilicet sit aut calidus aut frigidus. Manifestum est enim quod potentia animae quae est actus alicuius organi conformatur illi organo sicut actus susceptibili,
First, then, he concludes from what has been said that if our intellect, to know all things, must not have any determinate nature from among the natures of bodily realities, which it knows, for the same reason, it is a reasonable inference that the intellect is not mixed with the body, that is, that it has no bodily organ, as the sensitive part of the soul has. For if there were some organ for the intellect as there is for the sensitive part, it would follow that it would have some determinate nature from among the natures of sensible realities. Therefore, he says, it follows that it will be some quality, meaning that it has some sensible quality, such as either hot or cold. For it is obvious that the power of the soul that is the act of any organ must conform to that organ as act to what receives it.
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685. nec refert, quantum ad actum potentiae, utrum ipsa potentia habeat aliquam qualitatem sensibilem determinatam aut organum, cum actus non sit potentiae solum, sed compositi ex potentia et organo corporeo; similiter enim impediretur visio colorum si potentia visiva haberet colorem determinatum sive pupilla; et ideo dicit quod eiusdem rationis est ponere quod intellectus non habeat organum corporale et quod non habeat aliquam naturam corpoream determinatam. Et ideo subdit quod nullum est organum intellectivae partis, sicut est sensitivae.
685. It makes no difference to the act of the power whether it is the power itself that has a determinate sensible quality or the organ, since an act is not of the power alone but of the power and bodily organ together. For the seeing of colors would be impeded in the same way if it were the visual power or the pupil that has the determinate color. So he says that it comes to the same thing to maintain that intellect has no bodily organ and that it has no determinate bodily nature. And he concludes that the intellectual part of the soul, unlike the sensitive, has no bodily organ.
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686. Deinde cum dicit: et bene iam dicentes sunt etc., adaptat ei quod dictum est opinionem antiquorum. Et dicit quod, ex quo pars intellectiva non habet organum sicut habet pars sensitiva, iam potest verificari dictum illorum qui dixerunt quod anima est locus specierum, quod per similitudinem dicitur eo quod est specierum receptiva; quod quidem non esset verum si quaelibet pars animae haberet organum, quia iam species non reciperentur in anima sola, sed in coniuncto: non enim visus solus est susceptivus specierum, sed oculus; et ideo non est dicendum quod tota anima sit locus specierum, sed solum pars intellectiva, quae organum non habet, neque ita est locus specierum quod habeat actu species, sed potentia tantum.
686. Next, where he says, and now, they spoke well (429a27), he relates his view to an opinion of the early philosophers, saying that, granted the intellectual part’s lack of an organ the way the sensitive part has one, we can now see why some have said that the soul is the place of species, meaning that through a likeness it is said that it is receptive of species. Now, this saying would be false if every part of the soul had an organ, for then the species would not be received into the soul alone, but into the composite. For it is not only sight that receives species but the eye. It follows that the soul as a whole is not the place of species, but only that part of it which lacks a bodily organ, that is, the intellectual part; nor is it the place of the species in such a way that it has species actually, but potentially only.
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687. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem non similis etc., ostendit differentiam inter sensum et intellectum quantum ad impassibilitatem. Dictum enim fuit supra quod, sicut sentire non est pati, proprie accepta passione, ita nec intelligere, et ex hoc supra conclusit quod intellectus erat impassibilis. Ne ergo aliquis crederet quod in eodem gradu impassibilitatis esset sensus et intellectus, subiungit hic quod non est similis impassibilitas sensitivi et intellectivi. Sensus enim, licet non per se patiatur a sensibili, passione proprie accepta, patitur tamen per accidens inquantum organi proportio corrumpitur ex excellenti sensibili; sed hoc de intellectu accidere non potest, cum organo careat, unde nec per se nec per accidens passibilis est.
687. Then, at that the impassibility (429a29), he shows how the intellect and the senses differ with respect to impassibility. He has already observed that just as sensing is not a “being acted upon” (pati), taking “passion” (passione) properly, so neither is understanding; whence he had inferred earlier that the intellect was impassible. But so that no one might think that the senses and the intellect stand in the same grade of impassibility, he adds here that the impassibility of the sensitive power is not like that of the intellectual power. For though a sense in itself is not acted upon by its object (taking “passion” properly), still it is acted upon accidentally, inasmuch as the proportion of the organ is corrupted by an excessively sensible object. But this does not happen to the intellect, since it has no organ; it is therefore neither in itself nor accidentally passible.
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688. Et hoc est quod dicit quod dissimilitudo impassibilitatis sensitivi et intellectivi manifesta est ex organis et sensu, quia sensus efficitur impotens ad sentiendum ex valde sensibili, sicut auditus non potest sentire sonum propter hoc quod motus est ex magnis sonis, neque visus potest videre neque olfactus odorare ex eo quod hi sensus moti sunt prius ex fortibus odoribus et coloribus corrumpentibus organum; sed intellectus, quia non habet organum corporeum quod corrumpi possit ab excellentia proprii obiecti, cum intelligit aliquid valde intelligibile, non minus postea intelligit infima, sed magis; et idem accideret de sensu, si non haberet organum corporale. Debilitatur tamen intellectus ex laesione alicuius organi corporalis indirecte, inquantum ad eius operationem requiritur operatio sensus habentis organum. Causa igitur huius diversitatis est quod sensitivum non est sine corpore, sed intellectus est separatus.
688. This is what he means when he proceeds to say that the dissimilarity between sense and intellect in point of passibility is manifest from the organs and from sensation. For too strong a sense-object can take away the power of sense. For example, one cannot sense a sound because of the motion caused by very great sounds, nor can sight see or smell smell if these senses have been moved first by powerful colors and smells corrupting the organ. But since the intellect has no bodily organ that could be corrupted by an excess of its proper object, when the intellect understands something highly intelligible, it does not understand lower things less, but more afterward; and the same would happen to the senses, if they did not have bodily organs. All the same, an injury to an organ of the body may indirectly weaken the intellect, insofar as the latter’s activity requires the activity of the sense that has the organ. The cause, then, of the difference is that sensitive power is not without the body, but the intellect is separate.
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689. Ex his autem quae hic dicuntur apparet falsitas opinionis illorum qui dixerunt quod intellectus est vis imaginativa vel aliqua praeparatio in natura humana consequens corporis complexionem.
689. All this goes to show the falsity of the opinion held by some that intellect is the same as the imaginative power or a certain preparation in human nature that follows on the body’s constitution.
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Sed horum occasione verborum quidam intantum decepti sunt ut ponerent intellectum possibilem secundum esse a corpore separatum, sicut una de substantiis separatis. Quod quidem omnino impossibile est.
On the other hand, this same text has been, for some, an occasion of falling into the error of regarding the potential intellect as separated in being from the body, as one of the separated substances. This is altogether impossible.
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690. Manifestum est enim quod hic homo intelligit: si enim hoc negetur, tunc dicens hanc opinionem non intelligit aliquid nec est audiendus. Si autem intelligit, oportet quod aliquo, formaliter loquendo, intelligat; hoc autem est intellectus possibilis, de quo philosophus dicit: “dico autem intellectum quo intelligit et opinatur anima”; intellectus igitur possibilis est quo hic homo, formaliter loquendo, intelligit.
690. For it is clear that this man understands. For if one denies this, then he himself does not understand anything, nor should he be listened to. But if he does understand, he must understand by something, formally speaking, and this is the potential intellect, to which the Philosopher refers when he says, “I mean that intellect by which the soul understands and forms opinions.” The potential intellect, then, is that by which this particular man, formally speaking, understands.
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Id autem quo aliquid operatur sicut activo principio potest secundum esse separari ab eo quod operatur, ut si dicamus quod balivus operatur per regem, quia rex movet eum ad operandum; sed impossibile est id quo aliquid formaliter operatur separari ab eo secundum esse; quod ideo est quia nihil agit nisi secundum quod est actu; sic igitur aliquid formaliter aliquo operatur sicut eo fit actu; non autem fit aliquid aliquo ens actu si sit separatum ab eo secundum esse; unde impossibile est quod illud quo aliquid agit formaliter sit separatum ab eo secundum esse;
Now, that by which an agent acts, as by an active principle, may be separated in being from that which acts; for example, the bailiff acts through the king because the king moves him to his act. But it is impossible for that by which something formally acts to be separated from it in being; this is because nothing acts except insofar as it is in act; something, therefore, formally acts by something just as it comes to be in act by that thing. Now, something does not become a being in act by something else if it is separated from the latter in being. Hence it is impossible that that by which something formally acts be separated from it in being.
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691. Et ideo hoc considerantes adinventores huius positionis conati sunt adinvenire aliquem modum quo illa substantia separata quem intellectum possibilem dicunt continuetur et uniatur nobiscum, ut sic eius intelligere sit nostrum intelligere. Dicunt enim quod species intelligibilis est forma intellectus possibilis (per eam enim fit in actu), huius autem speciei subiectum quoddam est phantasma, quod est in nobis; sic igitur dicunt intellectum possibilem copulari nobiscum per formam suam.
691. With this truth in mind, those who have maintained the opinion to which I refer tried to think out some way of so linking up and uniting that separated substance (which they call the “potential intellect”) with ourselves, so that its understanding would be our understanding. For they say that the form of the potential intellect (through which it comes to be in act) is the intelligible species; and that the subject of this species is a certain phantasm that exists in us. In this way, they said, the potential intellect is linked with us through its form.
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692. Sed hoc quod dictum est omnino nullam continuationem intellectus ad nos demonstrat. Quod sic patet: intellectus enim possibilis non est unum cum intelligibili nisi secundum quod est intellectum in actu, sicut nec sensus est idem cum sensibili in potentia, ut supra habitum est; species igitur intelligibilis non est forma intellectus possibilis nisi secundum quod est intelligibilis actu, non est autem intelligibilis actu nisi secundum quod est a phantasmatibus abstracta; manifestum est igitur quod secundum quod unitur intellectui est remota a phantasmatibus; non igitur per hoc intellectus unitur nobiscum.
692. But this entirely fails to prove any continuity between the intellect and ourselves. This is clear as follows. The potential intellect is united with an intelligible object only to the degree that the latter is actually understood, just as we have seen that the sense is not the same as the sensible in potency.1 Therefore, the intelligible species is not the form of the potential intellect until it is actually intelligible, and it is not actually intelligible until it has been abstracted from phantasms. Hence, in the degree that it is joined to the intellect, it is removed from phantasms. Therefore, an intellectual power could not be united with us in this way.
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693. Sed manifestum est quod auctor huius positionis deceptus fuit per fallaciam accidentis, quasi sic arguens: phantasmata sunt quodammodo unum cum specie intelligibili; species autem intelligibilis est unum cum intellectu possibili; ergo intellectus possibilis unitur phantasmatibus; manifestum est quod incidit fallacia accidentis, quia species intelligibilis secundum quod est unum cum intellectu possibili est abstracta a phantasmatibus, ut dictum est.
693. And obviously the upholder of this view was led astray by the fallacy of the accident. For his argument comes to this: phantasms are somehow one with intelligible species, and the intelligible species is one with the potential intellect; therefore, the potential intellect is united to the phantasms. But it is manifest that this is falling into the fallacy of the accident, since the intelligible species is one with the potential intellect to the degree that it is abstracted from phantasms, as was said.
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694. Dato tamen quod per hunc modum sit aliqua unio intellectus possibilis ad nos, non tamen haec unio faceret nos intelligentes, sed magis intellectos. Id enim cuius est similitudo species, in virtute aliqua cognoscitiva existens, non ex hoc fit cognoscens, sed cognitum: non enim per hoc quod species quae est in pupilla est similitudo coloris qui est in pariete, color est videns, sed magis est visus. Per hoc igitur quod species intelligibilis quae est in intellectu possibili est similitudo quaedam phantasmatis, non sequitur quod nos simus intelligentes, sed quod nos, vel potius phantasmata nostra sint intellecta ab illa substantia separata.
694. But even granted that between the potential intellect and ourselves there existed some such union as this view supposes, it would not in fact cause us to understand, but rather, it would cause us to be understood. For that of which the species is a likeness, existing in some cognitive power, does not thereby make a knower; rather, it makes a thing known. For the species, which is in the pupil, being a likeness of the color that is in the wall does not render color something that sees, but rather, something seen. Therefore, if the intelligible species, which is in the potential intellect, is a sort of likeness of our phantasms, it does not follow that we ourselves understand anything, but rather that we—or, more precisely, our phantasms—are understood by that separated intellectual substance.
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695. Sunt autem plura alia quae contra hanc positionem dici possunt, quae alibi diligentius perscrutavimus; sed hic hoc unum sufficiat quod ad hanc positionem sequitur quod hic homo non intelligit.
695. Many other criticisms might be made, such as I have set out in more detail elsewhere, but it is enough to note for the present that the theory in question is an implicit denial that this man here understands.
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696. Manifestum est etiam quod haec positio est contra intentionem Aristotelis. Et primo quidem quia Aristoteles hic inquirit de parte animae: sic enim hunc tractatum incipit, unde manifestum est quod intellectus possibilis est pars animae et non est substantia separata.
696. Furthermore, it is also clearly contrary to the teaching of Aristotle. First, because he has explicitly said at the beginning of the treatise that he is inquiring about a part of the soul; hence, it is clear that the potential intellect is a part of the soul and not any separated substance.
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697. Item, ex hoc quod ipse procedit ad inquirendum de intellectu sive sit separabilis subiecto ab aliis partibus animae sive non: unde patet quod suus processus stat etiam si intellectus subiecto non sit separabilis ab aliis partibus animae.
697. Moreover, leaving aside the question whether the intellect is separable in subject from the other parts of the soul or not, he has set out to examine the intellect; so even if the intellect is not separable in subject from the other parts of the soul, that does not affect his argument.
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698. Item, per hoc quod dicit quod intellectus est quo anima intelligit. Haec enim omnia ostendunt quod Aristoteles non dixit intellectum esse separatum sicut sunt substantiae separatae.
698. Again, Aristotle calls the intellect that by which the soul understands. All these indications show that he did not assert that the intellect was separate as are the separated substances.
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699. Mirum autem est quomodo tam leviter erraverunt ex hoc quod dicit quod intellectus est separatus, cum ex littera sua huius verbi habeatur intellectus: dicit enim separatus intellectus, quia non habet organum sicut sensus. Et hoc contingit quia anima humana propter suam nobilitatem supergreditur facultatem materiae corporalis et non potest totaliter includi ab ea; unde remanet ei aliqua actio in qua materia corporalis non communicat et propter hoc potentia eius ad hanc actionem non habet organum corporale, et sic est intellectus separatus.
699. Indeed, it is astonishing how easily some have let themselves be deceived by his calling the intellect separate; for the text itself makes it perfectly clear what he means—for he calls the intellect separate because, unlike the senses, the intellect has no organ. For the human soul, on account of its own nobility, transcends the capacity of bodily matter and cannot be entirely contained by it. Hence there remains for it a certain activity in which bodily matter has no share; and on account of this, its potency for this activity has no bodily organ, and in this sense intellect is separate.
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L. 2 (Γ.4, 429b5–429b22)Intellectual abstraction
Quodnam sit intellectus humani obiectum inquirit; concludens illud esse quidditatem rerum materialium, non autem speciem intelligibilem aliquam
Intellectual abstraction
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Cum autem sic singula fiat ut sciens, dicitur qui secundum actum. Hoc autem confestim accidit cum possit operari per se ipsum. Est quidem igitur et tunc potentia quodam modo, non tamen similiter et ante addiscere aut invenire. Et ipse autem se ipsum tunc potest intelligere.
But when it becomes particular objects as does a knower, one is then spoken of as in act. (This comes about as soon as such a one is able to act of himself.) It is, then, in a way still in potency, but not in the way it was before it learned or discovered. And then, too, it is able to understand its very self.
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Quoniam autem aliud est magnitudo et magnitudini esse, et aqua et aquae esse et sic in multis alteris (non autem in omnibus: in quibusdam enim idem est esse carni et carnem), aut alio ergo aut aliter habente discernit.
Now, as magnitude is one thing and the being of magnitude another, and as water is one thing and the being of water another, and so with many other things (but not all things, for in certain things flesh is the same as the being of flesh), accordingly it discerns either by something else or by the same power differently disposed.1
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Caro enim non sine materia, sed sicut simum, hoc in hoc: sensitivo quidem igitur calidum et frigidum iudicat, et quorum ratio quaedam caro. Alio autem, aut separato aut sicut circumflexa se habet ad se ipsam, cum extensa sit, carni esse discernit.
For flesh is not without matter; rather, like the snub, this exists in that. By the sensitive power, therefore, it judges the hot and the cold and the things a certain ratio of which is flesh. But it discerns the being of flesh by something else, either by a separate power or by it as if it were bent back upon itself (whereas it was straightened).
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Iterum autem in his quae abstractione sunt, rectum sicut simum: cum continuo enim; quod autem quid erat esse, si est alterum recto esse et rectum, alio; sit enim dualitas. Altero itaque aut aliter se habente iudicat. Omnino ergo sicut separabiles res a materia, sic et quae circa intellectum sunt.
Again, in the things that exist by abstraction, the straight is as the snub; for it goes with the continuous. But its what-it-was-to-be, if being straight is other than the straight, is different. Let it be, for instance, duality. Then it judges either by another power or by the same differently disposed. In general, then, the way the things are separable from matter is how they relate to the intellect.
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700. Cum autem sic singula fiat. Postquam philosophus determinavit de intellectu possibili qui est in potentia ad intelligibilia, hic ostendit quomodo in actum reducatur.
700. But when it becomes particular objects (429b5). Having reached certain conclusions about the potential intellect, which exists in potency to intelligible objects, the Philosopher now goes on to show how it is reduced to act.
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Et primo ostendit quomodo intellectus aliquando fit in actu;
And first, he shows how the intellect is sometimes in act;
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secundo ostendit quid sit proprium obiectum eius respectu cuius fit in actu, ibi: quoniam autem aliud est magnitudo.
and second, at now, as magnitude (429b10; [705]), what is the proper object of its actualization.
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<Primo ergo ostendit quomodo intellectus aliquando fit in actu,> dicens: dictum est quod anima intellectiva non est actu ipsae species, sed in potentia tantum; cum autem sic fiat singula, id est sic reducatur in actum specierum intelligibilium, quemadmodum sciens, id est habens habitum scientiae, habet species in actu, tunc dicitur intellectus qui est secundum actum. Hoc autem accidit statim cum aliquis potest per seipsum operari operationem intellectus quae est intelligere; sicut et quamlibet formam tunc aliquis in actu habet quando potest operationem illius formae explere.
He explains how the intellect is actualized thus: the intellectual soul, we have said, is not the very species in act, but only in potency.1 But when it becomes particular objects, that is, when the intellect is reduced to the act of the intelligible species, in the way that a knower does, that is, as having the habit of scientific knowledge, then it has the species actually, and then the intellect is spoken of as an intellect in act; this comes about as soon as such a one is able to act, that is, to do the intellectual activity called “understanding,” of himself. This is also just as someone actually has any form whatsoever when he can accomplish the activity of that form.
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701. Sed licet tunc intellectus quodammodo sit in actu quando habet species intelligibiles sicut sciens, tamen et tunc etiam est quodammodo in potentia, non tamen eodem modo sicut erat in potentia ante quam scientiam acquireret addiscendo vel inveniendo; nam antequam haberet habitum scientiae, qui est primus actus, non poterat operari cum vellet, sed oportebat quod ab altero reduceretur in actum; sed quando iam habet habitum scientiae, qui est actus primus, potest cum voluerit procedere in actum secundum, quod est operatio.
701. Yet though an intellect is in a certain way in act when it has intelligible species the way a knower does, nonetheless it is, then, in a way still in potency, but not in the same way as it was in potency before it acquired the science, either by being taught it or by its own discovery. For before it acquired the habit of a science—which is its first actuality—it could not become active at will; rather, it needed to be brought into act by something else. But once such a habit is acquired, the first act, the intellect has the power to bring itself into the second act, which is the activity, at will.
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702. Manifestum est autem ex hoc quod hic dicitur falsam esse opinionem Avicennae quam habet de speciebus intelligibilibus, et contra opinionem Aristotelis.
702. What is said here disproves the position of Avicenna, which is contrary to Aristotle’s position, regarding intelligible species.
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Ponit enim Avicenna quod species intelligibiles non conservantur in intellectu possibili nec sunt in eo nisi quando actu intelligit; sed oportet, secundum ipsum, quod quandocumque intelligit actu quod convertat se ad intelligentiam separatam agentem, a qua effluunt in intellectum possibilem intelligibiles species.
For Avicenna maintained that intelligible species are not retained in the potential intellect, nor are they in it at all except when one is actually understanding. Rather, according to him, for it to actually understand anything, it must turn to a separated agent intelligence, from which the intelligible species flow into the potential intellect.
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703. Contra quod hic manifeste philosophus dicit quod intellectus reductus in actum specierum per modum quo scientia actus est, adhuc est potentia intellectus; cum enim intellectus actu intelligit, species intelligibiles sunt in ipso secundum actum perfectum, cum autem habet habitum scientiae, sunt species in intellectu medio modo inter potentiam puram et actum purum.
703. But against this, the Philosopher is clearly saying that the intellect brought to the act of the species in the way in which the science is the act is still an intellect in potency. For when the intellect is actually understanding, the intelligible species are in it by a perfect actuality; but so long as it has the habit of the science, the species are in the intellect in an intermediate mode between pure potency and pure actuality.
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704. Et quia dixerat quod quando intellectus fit quodammodo in actu secundum singula eorum ad quae erat in potentia, tunc potest intelligere, respectu autem sui nullo modo erat in potentia, posset aliquis credere quod factus in actu seipsum non intelligeret; et ideo ad hoc excludendum subiungit quod intellectus factus in actu non solum potest intelligere alia, sed etiam tunc potest intelligere seipsum.
704. And because he asserted that once the intellect has become in a certain way actual with respect to the individuals of the things that it used to be in potency, then it is able to understand, whereas regarded in itself it is in no way in potency, someone could believe that when it comes to be in act it would not understand its very self. To avoid this, Aristotle adds that the intellect brought to act can understand not only other things, but it also is able to understand its very self.
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705. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem aliud est magnitudo, ostendit philosophus quid sit obiectum intellectus. Ad cuius evidentiam sciendum est quod philosophus in VII Metaphysicae inquirit utrum quod quid est, id est quidditas vel essentia rei quam significat definitio, sit idem quod res; et quia Plato ponebat quidditates rerum esse separatas a singularibus, quas dicebat ideas vel species, ideo ostendit quod quidditates rerum non sunt aliud a rebus nisi per accidens, utputa non est idem quidditas hominis albi et homo albus, quia quidditas hominis non continet in se nisi quod pertinet ad speciem hominis, sed quod dico homo albus habet aliquid in se praeter id quod est de specie humana.
705. Next, at now, as magnitude is one (429b10), Aristotle elucidates what the object of the intellect is. To understand him here, we must recall the problem stated in Metaphysics 7, namely, whether the what-it-is, that is, the “whatness” or essence of a thing—whatever is signified by its definition—is the same as the thing itself.1 And while Plato used to assert that the “whatnesses” of things (which he called “ideas” or “species”) were separated from the individual things, Aristotle was concerned to show that the whatnesses of things are not something other than the things except accidentally. For example, a white man and the whatness of a white man are not the same thing, because the whatness of man includes only what pertains to man’s species, whereas the thing called a “white man” includes something besides what pertains to the human species.
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706. Hoc autem contingit in omnibus habentibus formam in materia quod in eis est aliquid praeter principia speciei: nam natura speciei individuatur per materiam, unde principia individuantia et accidentia individui sunt praeter essentiam speciei, et ideo contingit sub una specie inveniri plura individua quae, licet non differant in natura speciei, differunt tamen secundum principia individuantia; et propter hoc in omnibus habentibus formam in materia non est omnino idem res et quod quid est eius: Socrates enim non est sua humanitas. In his vero quae non habent formam in materia sed sunt formae simplices, nihil potest esse praeter essentiam speciei, quia ipsa forma est tota essentia, et ideo in talibus non possunt esse plura individua unius speciei nec potest in eis differre res et quod quid est eius.
706. And the same is true of anything whose form exists in matter: there is something in it besides the principles of its species. For the species’ nature is individualized through matter; hence the individualizing principles and accidents of the individual are outside the essence of the species. That is why there can be many individuals under one species, and although they do not differ in the nature of the species, they nevertheless differ in virtue of their individuating principles. Hence, in all such things having form in matter, the thing and what it is are not altogether the same thing. For Socrates is not his humanity. But in things that do not have their form in matter, but are simple forms, there can be nothing outside the essence of the species; for the form itself is the entire essence. And in such things, therefore, there cannot be several individuals of the one species, nor in them can the thing and its what-it-is be different.
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707. Considerandum est etiam quod non solum naturalia habent speciem in materia, sed etiam mathematica:
707. It also should be considered that natural things are not alone in having their species in matter; the same is also true of mathematical objects.
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est enim duplex materia: scilicet sensibilis, a qua abstrahunt mathematica et concernunt eam naturalia, et intelligibilis, quam etiam mathematica concernunt. Quod quidem sic intelligendum est: manifestum est enim quod quantitas immediate inhaeret substantiae; qualitates autem sensibiles in quantitate fundantur, ut album et nigrum, calidum et frigidum; remoto autem posteriori, remanet prius; unde, remotis qualitatibus sensibilibus secundum intellectum, adhuc remanet quantitas continua in intellectu;
For there are two sorts of matter: sensible matter, from which the mathematical objects abstract and with which natural things blend; and intelligible matter, with which even mathematical objects blend. This should be understood as follows. It is manifest that quantity inheres in substance immediately, whereas sensible qualities, like white and black or heat and cold, are founded on quantity. Now, given two things of which one is prior to the other, if you remove the second, the first remains; hence removing sensible qualities in the intellect, there still remains in the intellect the continuous quantity.
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708. sunt ergo quaedam formae quae requirunt materiam sub determinata dispositione sensibilium qualitatum, et huiusmodi sunt omnes formae naturales et ideo naturalia concernunt materiam sensibilem; quaedam vero formae sunt quae non exigunt materiam sub determinata dispositione sensibilium qualitatum, tamen requirunt materiam sub quantitate existentem, sicut triangulus et quadratum et huiusmodi, et haec dicuntur mathematica et abstrahunt a materia sensibili, sed non a materia intelligibili, inquantum in intellectu remanet continua quantitas abstracta a sensibili qualitate. Sic igitur patet quod, sicut naturalia habent formam in materia, ita et mathematica, et propter hoc tam in naturalibus quam in mathematicis differt res et quod quid est; unde in utrisque inveniuntur plura individua sub una specie: sicut enim sunt plures homines unius speciei, ita et plures trianguli sub una specie.
708. Therefore there are some forms that require matter under the determinate disposition of sensible qualities, and such are all natural forms, and therefore, natural things are mingled with sensible matter. But there are other forms that do not need matter under the determinate disposition of sensible qualities, yet do require matter existing under quantity, such the triangle, the square, and the like; these are called “mathematicals,” and they abstract from sensible matter, but not from intelligible matter, insofar as continuous quantity remains within the intellect after being abstracted from sensible quality. Clearly, then, just as natural things have form in matter, so do mathematical objects, and on account of this in both there is a difference between the thing and what it is; this is why in both cases one finds many individual things under one species; for just as there are many men of one species, so too, there are many triangles under one species.
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709. His igitur habitis, planum est accipere, ex littera, philosophi intellectum. Dicit enim quod aliud est magnitudo et magnitudini esse, id est aliud magnitudo et quod quid est eius (esse enim quod est magnitudini appellat quidditatem eius), et similiter aliud est aqua et aquae esse et sic est in multis aliis, id est in omnibus mathematicis et naturalibus; unde signanter duo exempla posuit, nam magnitudo est quid mathematicum, aqua autem est quid naturale.
709. If these points are understood, the text of the Philosopher should present no difficulties. For he says that magnitude is one thing and the being of magnitude another, meaning a magnitude and what it is—for he calls the whatness of magnitude “the being of magnitude.” So also water is one thing and the being of water another, and so with many other things, that is, in all natural and mathematical objects. Hence his choice of these two examples is significant: for magnitude is a mathematical object and water is a natural one.
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710. Non autem hoc contingit in omnibus: nam in his quae omnino sunt separata a materia, idem est res et quod quid est eius; et quia substantiae separatae ignotae sunt nobis, non potuit eas nominare propriis nominibus, sicut nominavit mathematica et naturalia, sed nominat ea sub exemplo rerum naturalium; et hoc est quod subdit quod in quibusdam idem est carni esse et carnem; ex quo non intelligit quod idem sit caro et quod quid est eius (non enim diceret in quibusdam sic esse, sed simpliciter diceret quod idem est caro et carni esse), sed intelligit quod hoc quod sic dicitur aliquid et alicui, ut caro et carni esse, idem est in quibusdam, scilicet in his quae sunt a materia separata.
710. But this does not happen for all things; for in things that are altogether separated from matter, the thing and its what-it-is are the same. And because such substances are unknown to us, Aristotle could not assign proper names to them, as he could to natural and mathematical objects; so he describes them in terms drawn from natural things. That is why he says that in certain things, flesh is the same as the being of flesh. He does not mean that flesh is the same things as its what-it-is (else he would not have said this is the case in certain things, but would have simply said that flesh and flesh’s being are the same). Rather, he means that in certain things, that is, in those things separated from matter, that which is called a thing and what belongs to it—for instance, flesh and the flesh’s being—are the same.
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711. Et quia ad diversa cognoscenda diversae potentiae cognoscitivae requiruntur, concludit quod anima aut cognoscit alio rem et eius quidditatem, aut uno et eodem sed alio modo se habente. Manifestum est autem quod caro non est sine materia, sed forma carnis est forma determinata et in materia determinata sensibili, sicut et simum habet subiectum sensibile determinatum, scilicet nasum;
711. And since for the diverse objects to be known diverse knowing powers are required, he concludes by saying that either the soul knows a thing with one power and its whatness with another, or it knows both with one and the same power in different ways. But it is obvious that flesh is not without matter, for the form of flesh is a determinate form in determinate sensible matter, like also the snub has a determinate sensible subject, namely, the nose.
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hanc igitur materiam sensitivam cognoscit anima per sensum; et hoc est quod subdit quod anima iudicat potentia sensitiva calidum et frigidum, et alia huiusmodi quorum ratio, id est proportio, quaedam caro; forma enim carnis requirit determinatam proportionem calidi et frigidi et aliorum huiusmodi.
Now, the soul knows this sensitive matter through the senses; that is why he adds that it is by the sense power that the soul judges the hot and the cold and so forth, of which flesh is a certain ratio, that is, proportion. For the form of flesh requires a certain determinate proportion of heat and cold and so forth.
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712. Sed oportet quod alia potentia discernat esse carni, id est quod quid est carnis; sed hoc contingit dupliciter:
712. But the being of flesh, that is, what flesh is, must be discerned by some other power. But this happens in two ways.
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uno modo sic quod ipsa caro et quidditas carnis cognoscantur omnino potentiis ad invicem divisis, puta quod potentia sensitiva cognoscitur caro et potentia intellectiva cognoscitur quidditas carnis; et hoc contingit quando anima per se cognoscit singulare et per se cognoscit naturam speciei;
In one way, flesh itself and the whatness of flesh are known by powers wholly divided from each other; for example, the whatness is known by the intellectual power, and the flesh by the sensitive power; and this happens when the soul through itself knows the individual and through itself the nature of the species.
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alio modo contingit quod cognoscitur alio caro et quod quid est carnis, non quod sit alia et alia potentia, sed quod una et eadem potentia alio et alio modo cognoscit carnem et quod quid est eius; et istud oportet esse cum anima comparat universale ad singulare: sicut enim supra dictum est quod non possemus sentire differentiam albi et dulcis nisi esset una potentia sensitiva communis quae cognosceret utrumque, ita etiam non possemus cognoscere comparationem universalis ad singulare nisi esset una potentia quae cognosceret utrumque; intellectus igitur utrumque cognoscit, sed alio et alio modo:
But in another way, the flesh and what flesh is, is known by something else, not by two distinct powers, but by one power knowing in two distinct ways—knowing in one way flesh; in another, the what-it-is of flesh. And this must happen when the soul compares the universal to the individual. For just as it would be impossible for us (as we have seen) to distinguish the sweet from the white if there were no common sensitive power that would know both, so too, we could not know the comparison of the universal to the individual unless there were one power that knew both.1 The intellect, therefore, knows both, but in different ways.
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713. cognoscit enim naturam speciei sive quod quid est directe extendendo se in ipsam, ipsum autem singulare per quamdam reflexionem inquantum redit super phantasmata a quibus species intelligibiles abstrahuntur.
713. For it knows the nature of the species, that is, what it is, directly by extending itself to that object; but it knows the individual thing by a certain reflection, inasmuch as it returns to the phantasms from which it abstracted the intelligible species.
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Et hoc est quod dicit quod, cum sensitivo cognoscit carnem, alio, id est alia potentia, discernit esse carni, id est quod quid est carnis, aut separato, puta cum caro cognoscitur sensu et esse carni intellectu, aut eodem aliter se habente, scilicet sicut circumflexa se habet ad seipsam anima intellectiva cognoscit carnem, quae cum extensa sit discernit esse carni, id est directe apprehendit quidditatem carnis, per reflexionem autem ipsam carnem.
This Aristotle expresses by saying that when it knows flesh by the sensitive power, but by something else, that is, by another power, it discerns the being of flesh, that is, what flesh is, either by a separate power—that is, when it knows flesh by the sense and the being of flesh by the intellect—or it knows flesh and the being of flesh by one and the same power standing in different ways, that is, as if it were bent back upon itself, the soul then knows the flesh, but when straightened, it discerns the being of flesh, that is, it directly apprehends the whatness of flesh, but through the bending back upon flesh itself.
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714. Deinde cum dicit: iterum autem in his, quod supra dixerat in naturalibus exponit in mathematicis, dicens quod iterum in his quae sunt per abstractionem, id est in mathematicis, quorum ratio abstrahit a materia sensibili, rectum se habet sicut simum, hoc est mathematica habent materiam sicut et naturalia (rectum enim mathematicum est, simum autem naturale): ratio enim recti est cum continuo sicut ratio simi cum naso; continuum autem est materia intelligibilis sicut nasus materia sensibilis. Unde manifestum est quod aliud est in mathematicis res et quod quid erat esse, ut rectum et recto esse, unde oportet quod alio cognoscat quod quid erat esse horum et alio ipsa;
714. Next, at again, in the things that exist by abstraction (429b18), he applies what he had said of natural objects to mathematical objects, saying that in the things that are through abstraction, that is, in mathematical objects, the account of which abstracts from sensible matter, the straight is as the snub; that is, mathematical objects have a matter just as natural things do (for the straight is a mathematical object and the snub a natural one). For the account of the straight includes the continuous just as the account of the snub includes a nose. But the continuous is an intelligible matter, just as a nose is sensible matter. Therefore, in mathematics also, the thing and what-it-was-to-be, for example, being straight and the straight, are different; hence too, even in mathematics, things and essences must be objects of different kinds of knowing.
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715. et supponamus ad praesens causa exempli quod dualitas sit quod quid erat esse lineae rectae (Plato enim ponebat quod numeri erant species et quidditates mathematicorum, puta unitas puncti, dualitas lineae rectae, et sic de aliis). Oportet igitur quod anima aut alio cognoscat ipsa mathematica et quidditates eorum, aut eodem aliter se habente; unde sicut per naturalia ostenditur quod intellectus qui cognoscit quidditates naturalium sit aliud a sensu qui cognoscit ipsa naturalia singularia, ita ex mathematicis ostenditur quod intellectus qui cognoscit quod quid est eorum sit aliud ab imaginativa virtute quae apprehendit ipsa mathematica.
715. As an instance of this let us suppose for a moment, with Plato, that the essence of a straight line is duality (for Plato identified the species and essences of mathematical objects with numbers, so that a point is unity, a straight line is duality, and so on). The soul, then, must know mathematical objects themselves and their essences by the same differently disposed. Hence, just as it can be shown, in the case of natural objects, that the intellect, which knows their essences, is other than the senses, which know the singular natural things themselves, so too, in the case of mathematics, it can be shown that the intellect, which knows their essences, is something other than the imaginative power, which apprehends mathematical objects themselves.
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716. Et quia posset aliquis credere quod eodem modo intelligerentur mathematica et naturalia, subiungit quod, sicut res sunt separabiles a materia, ita se habent ad intellectum. Unde illa quae sunt secundum esse separata a materia solo intellectu percipi possunt, quae autem non sunt separata a materia sensibili secundum esse sed secundum rationem intelliguntur absque materia sensibili, non autem absque materia intelligibili; naturalia vero intelliguntur per abstractionem a materia individuali, non autem per abstractionem a materia sensibili totaliter: intelligitur enim homo ut compositus ex carnibus et ossibus, per abstractionem tamen ab his carnibus et his ossibus; et inde est quod intellectus non cognoscit directe singularia, sed sensus vel imaginatio.
716. And lest it be said that mathematical objects are understood in the same way as are natural things, he adds that the way the things are separable from matter is how they relate to the intellect. This is why things that are separate from sensible matter in their being can be perceived only by the intellect, whereas things that are not separate from sensible matter in their being, but only in their account, are understood without sensible matter, but not without intelligible matter. Natural objects, however, although they are understood by abstraction from individual matter, are not understood by a total abstraction from sensible matter; for man is understood as composed of flesh and bones, though in abstraction from this flesh and these bones. This is why the singular individual is not directly known by the intellect, but by the senses or imagination.
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717. Apparet autem ex hoc quod philosophus dicit hic quod proprium obiectum intellectus est quidditas rei, quae non est separata a rebus, ut Platonici posuerunt. Unde id quod est obiectum intellectus nostri non est aliquid extra res sensibiles existens, ut Platonici posuerunt, sed aliquid in rebus sensibilibus existens, licet intellectus apprehendat alio modo quidditates rerum quam sint in rebus sensibilibus: non enim apprehendit eas cum conditionibus individuantibus quae eis in rebus sensibilibus adiunguntur.
717. From this text of Aristotle, it is apparent that the intellect’s proper object is indeed the whatness of a thing, which is not separate from things, as the Platonists thought. Hence this proper object of our intellect is not, as the Platonists held, something existing outside sensible things; rather, it is something existing within sensible things, even though the intellect apprehends the whatnesses of the things in a different way than they exist within the sensible things. For it does not apprehend them with the individuating conditions which belong to them in sensible things.
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Et hoc sine falsitate intellectus contingere potest: nihil enim prohibet duorum ad invicem coniunctorum unum intelligi absque hoc quod aliud intelligatur, sicut visus apprehendit colorem absque hoc quod apprehendat odorem, non tamen absque hoc quod apprehendat magnitudinem, quae est proprium subiectum coloris; unde et intellectus potest intelligere aliquam formam absque individuantibus principiis, non tamen absque materia a qua dependet ratio illius formae, sicut non potest intelligere simum sine naso, sed potest curvum sine naso intelligere. Et quia hoc non distinxerunt Platonici, posuerunt quod mathematica et quidditates rerum sint separatae in esse sicut sunt separatae in intellectu.
Nor need this involve the intellect in any falsehood, for there is no reason why, of two conjoined things, it could not understand one without understanding the other, as sight apprehends color without apprehending odor, though not without apprehending magnitude, which is the proper subject of color. In like manner, the intellect can understand a form apart from its individuating principles, though not apart from the matter on which the account of that form depends, just as it cannot understand the snub without thinking of a nose, but it can understand the curved without thinking of a nose. And it was just because the Platonists failed to draw this distinction that they thought that mathematical objects and the essences of things were as separated in being as they are separated in the intellect.
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718. Manifestum est etiam quod species intelligibiles, quibus intellectus possibilis fit in actu, non sunt obiectum intellectus. Non enim se habent ad intellectum sicut quod intelligitur, sed sicut quo intellectus intelligit, sicut et species quae est in visu non est quod videtur, sed est quo visus videt, quod autem videtur est color qui est in corpore; similiter et quod intellectus intelligit est quidditas quae est in rebus, non autem species intelligibilis, nisi inquantum intellectus super seipsum reflectitur. Manifestum est enim quod scientiae sunt de his quae intellectus intelligit; sunt autem scientiae de rebus, non autem de speciebus vel intentionibus intelligibilibus, nisi sola scientia rationalis; unde manifestum est quod species intelligibilis non est obiectum intellectus, sed quidditas rei intellectae.
718. Furthermore, it is clear that the intelligible species, by which the potential intellect is actualized, are not in themselves the intellect’s object. For they are not related to the intellect as that which but rather as that by which it understands. For just as, in seeing, the species that is in one’s sight is not what is seen but is that by which one’s sight sees (for what is seen is the color that exists in a body), so also what the intellect understands is the whatness that exists in real things, but not the intelligible species (except insofar as the intellect reflects upon itself). For it is manifest that sciences are about whatever the intellect understands, but the sciences are about real things, not about the intelligible species or intentions (logical science alone excepted). Clearly then, the intellect’s object is not the intelligible species, but rather the whatness of the reality that is understood.
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719. Ex quo patet vanam esse rationem quorumdam volentium ostendere quod intellectus possibilis sit unus in omnibus ex hoc quod idem est quod est intellectum ab omnibus, cum oporteat esse plures numero species intelligibiles si sunt plures intellectus. Non enim est species intelligibilis ipsum intellectum, sed similitudo eius in anima, et ideo, si sint plures intellectus habentes similitudinem unius et eiusdem rei, erit eadem res intellecta apud omnes. Et praeterea manifestum est quod etiam substantiae separatae intelligunt quidditates rerum naturalium quas nos intelligimus et earum intellectus diversi sunt; unde, si eorum ratio esset efficax, non evitaretur inconveniens quod concludunt per hoc quod ponunt unum intellectum in omnibus hominibus: non enim possunt ponere unum intellectum in omnibus intelligentibus.
719. From which we can infer the futility of an argument used by some to prove that all men have only one potential intellect in common. They argue from the fact that all men can understand the same object; and they say that if there were numerically many human intellects, they would necessarily have many intelligible species. But the intelligible species is not the thing understood, but rather its likeness in the soul; hence, if there are many intellects in possession of a likeness of one and the same reality, the same reality will be understood by all of them. Besides, even the separated substances clearly understand the whatnesses of the natural things that we understand and their intellects are distinct. Hence, if the above argument were valid, its conclusion—that all men have only one intellect—would still involve a difficulty; for they cannot posit that there is one intellect for all the intelligences.
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L. 3 (Γ.4, 429b22–430a9)Problems arising from intellect as an intelligible
Ostendit quo pacto possibilis intellectus sit intelligibilis
Problems arising from intellect as an intelligible
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Dubitabit autem utique aliquis, si intellectus simplex est et impassibile et nulli nihil habet commune, sicut dixit Anaxagoras, quomodo intelliget, si intelligere pati aliquid est: in quantum enim aliquod commune utrisque est, hoc quidem agere, illud vero pati videtur.
One might well inquire (if the intellect is simple and impassible, having nothing in common with anything else, as Anaxagoras said) how it understands, if understanding is a being acted upon. For it seems that one thing acts and another is acted upon only insofar as there is something common to the two.
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Amplius autem si intelligibilis et ipse, aut enim aliis inerit intellectus, si non secundum aliud ipse intelligibilis est, unum autem aliquid intelligibile specie est; si autem sit mixtum, aliquid habebit quod facit intelligibile ipsum sicut alia.
Again, if it is itself an intelligible, then either there is intellect in other intelligible things (unless it is intelligible through something else), the intelligible being one in species; or it will have, mixed with itself, something that makes it intelligible, as other things have.
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Aut pati quidem secundum commune aliquid divisum est prius, quoniam potentia quodam modo est intelligibilia intellectus, sed actu nihil, ante quam intelligat. Oportet autem sic sicut in tabula nihil est actu scriptum, quod quidem accidit in intellectu.
Or what about the passivity in a general sense, already alluded to in making distinctions on this point? Before it understands, the intellect is its intelligible objects potentially, but actually nothing. It must be as with a tablet on which there is nothing actually written; and so indeed it is in the case of intellect.
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Et ipse autem intelligibilis est sicut intelligibilia. In his quidem enim quae sunt sine materia, idem est intelligens et quod intelligitur; scientia namque speculativa et sic scibile idem est.
And it is itself intelligible like other intelligible objects. For in things that are without matter, the intellect and what is understood by it are the same. For speculative knowledge is the same as what is knowable in this way.
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Non autem semper intelligendi causa consideranda: in habentibus autem materiam, potentia solum unumquodque est intelligibilium, quare quidem illis non inerit intellectus (sine materia enim potentia est intellectus talium), illud autem intelligibile erit.
The reason why there is not always understanding must be considered. In material things, each intelligible object exists only potentially. Hence in them there is no intellect, for the understanding of such things is an immaterial potency. The intelligible exists, however, in them.
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720. Dubitabit autem utique aliquis etc. Postquam philosophus ostendit naturam intellectus possibilis et obiectum eius, hic movet quasdam dubitationes circa praedeterminata. Et dividitur in partes duas:
720. One might well inquire (429b22). Having manifested the nature and object of the potential intellect, Aristotle now presents some relevant difficulties; and this, in two stages.
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in prima movet dubitationes;
First, he states two problems;
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in secunda solvit eas, ibi: aut pati.
second, at or what about the passivity (429b29; [722]), he answers them.
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Movet autem primo duas dubitationes, quarum prima est: si intellectus est simplex et impassibilis et nulli habet aliquid commune, ut Anaxagoras dixit, quomodo intellectus potest intelligere, cum intelligere sit pati quoddam et de ratione patientis hoc esse videatur quod habeat aliquid commune cum agente, quia inquantum est aliquid commune utrisque, scilicet agenti et patienti, videtur quod hoc agat et illud patiatur? Oportet enim ea quae agunt et patiuntur ad invicem in materia communicare, ut dicitur in I De generatione.
The first of the two problems might be stated thus: if intellect is, as Anaxagoras said, simple and impassible, having nothing in common with anything else, how can it understand? For to understand is a certain way of being acted upon, and it belongs to the account of a patient to have something in common with the agent; because it is insofar as there is something common to the two (that is, to the agent and the patient) that it seems that this one acts and the other is acted upon. For things that act and things that are acted upon must communicate with each other in matter, as is shown in On Generation 1.1
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721. Secundam dubitationem ponit ibi: amplius autem. Et surgit haec dubitatio ex hoc quod supra dixit quod intellectus factus in actu etiam seipsum intelligit. Et est ista dubitatio quod, si intellectus est intelligibilis, hoc potest contingere duobus modis: uno modo, quod sit intelligibilis secundum se et non secundum aliud, alio modo, quod habeat aliquid sibi adiunctum quod faciat ipsum intelligibilem; si autem ipse secundum seipsum est intelligibilis et non secundum aliud, intelligibile autem inquantum huiusmodi est unum specie, sequetur, si hoc non solum est intelligibile sed intellectus, quod etiam alia intelligibilia sint intellectus, et ita omnia intelligibilia intelligunt; si autem est intelligibile per hoc quod habet aliquid sibi admixtum, sequetur quod habeat aliquid aliud quod faciat ipsum intelligibile sicut et alia quae intelliguntur, et ita videtur sequi idem quod prius, scilicet quod semper id quod intelligitur intelligat.
721. The second difficulty he states at again, if it is (429b26). This difficulty is occasioned by his earlier statement that once the intellect is in act it can understand even its very self.1 Now, if intellect itself is intelligible, it is so in either of two ways: either it is intelligible of itself and not in virtue of something else, or it has something connected to it that makes it intelligible. If it is intelligible of itself, and not through something else, then, since the intelligible of this sort is one in species, it seems to follow that if this is not only intelligible but also an intellect, then other intelligibles are also intellects, and thus all intelligible things understand. Unless it is intelligible by way of something else conjoined with it; then it would follow that the intellect will have something that makes it intelligible, as other things that are understood do; and thus it seems that here too what is understood always understands.
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722. Deinde cum dicit: aut pati quidem etc., solvit praemissas dubitationes.
722. Then, at or what about the passivity (429b29), he removes these difficulties.
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Et primo solvit primam, dicens quod, sicut prius distinctum est de passione cum ageretur de sensu, pati dicitur secundum aliquid commune, id est hoc quod est pati commune est et ad passionem quae est in contrarias dispositiones, sicut est prima passio mutua in rebus naturalibus quae communicant in materia, et ad pati quod dicitur secundum receptionem tantum; intellectus igitur dicitur pati inquantum est quodammodo in potentia ad intelligibilia et nihil eorum est actu, antequam intelligat. Oportet autem sic esse sicut contingit in tabula in qua nihil est actu scriptum, sed plura possunt in ea scribi; et hoc etiam accidit in intellectu possibili, quia nihil intelligibilium est in eo actu, sed in potentia tantum.
And first, he solves the first difficulty, saying that, as was already distinguished about passivity in regard to sense, one can speak of passivity in a general sense, that is, “to be acted upon” is common to both the passion that is in contrary dispositions—as is the first mutual passion in natural things, which communicate in matter—and to the “being acted upon” that is spoken of in reference only to a reception.1 The intellect, then, is said to be acted upon just as it is its intelligible objects potentially, but actually nothing, before it understands. It must be as with a tablet on which there is nothing actually written, but on which many things can be written. And so it is as well in the case of the potential intellect, because nothing of the intelligible objects is in it in act but only in potency.
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723. Et per hoc excluditur tam opinio antiquorum naturalium, qui ponebant animam compositam ex omnibus ut intelligeret omnia, quam etiam opinio Platonis, qui posuit naturaliter animam humanam habere omnium scientiam, sed esse eam quodammodo obrutam per unionem ad corpus, dicens quod addiscere nihil aliud est quam reminisci.
723. This rules out not only the early natural philosophers’ view, that the soul understands all things because it is composed of all things, but also Plato’s opinion that the human soul naturally possesses knowledge of all things but only its union with the body has caused it to forget. This theory is implicit in Plato’s reduction of learning to remembering.
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724. Deinde cum dicit: et ipse autem intelligibilis, solvit secundam dubitationem.
724. After this, at and it is itself (430a2), he answers the second difficulty.
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Et primo solvit quaestionem;
And first, he solves the question;
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secundo respondet ad obiectionem in contrarium factam, ibi: non autem semper.
second, at the reason why there is not (430a5; [727]), he responds to a fresh objection.
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Dicit ergo primo quod intellectus possibilis est intelligibilis non per suam essentiam, sed per aliquam speciem intelligibilem, sicut et alia intelligibilia. Quod probat ex hoc quod intellectum in actu et intelligens in actu sunt unum, sicut et supra dixit quod sensibile in actu et sensus in actu sunt unum;
First, then, he says that the potential intellect is itself intelligible, not through its own essence, but like other intelligible objects, through some intelligible species. He proves this from the fact that what is understood in act and the understanding in act are one—just as he said earlier in this book that the sensible in act and the sense in act are one.1
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est autem aliquid intelligibile in actu per hoc quod est actu a materia abstractum: sic enim supra dixit quod sicut res sunt separabiles a materia, sic sunt et quae sunt circa intellectum; et ideo hic dicit quod in his quae sunt sine materia, id est si accipiamus intelligibilia actu, idem est intellectus et quod intelligitur, sicut idem est sentiens in actu et quod sentitur in actu; ipsa enim scientia speculativa et sic scibile, id est scibile in actu, idem est. Species igitur rei intellectae in actu est species ipsius intellectus, et sic per eam seipsum intelligere potest; unde et supra philosophus per ipsum intelligere et per id quod intelligitur scrutatus est naturam intellectus possibilis: non enim cognoscimus intellectum nostrum nisi per hoc quod intelligimus nos intelligere.
Now, something is intelligible in act in virtue of its being actually abstracted from matter; for, as we have seen, things become objects of the intellect in the way that they are separable from matter.1 So, he says, in things that are without matter, that is, if we receive the intelligible in act, then the intellect and what is understood by it are the same, just as the sensing in act and what is sensed in act are the same. For speculative knowledge and what is knowable in this way (that is, the knowable in act) are the same. Therefore, the species of the actually understood reality is the species of the intellect itself, and in this way, through it, it can understand its very self. That is why the Philosopher above has studied the nature of the potential intellect through studying the very act of understanding and what is understood.2 For we know our intellect only through understanding our understanding.
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725. Accidit autem hoc intellectui possibili, quod non intelligatur per essentiam suam sed per speciem intelligibilem, ex hoc quod est potentia tantum in ordine intelligibilium: ostendit enim philosophus in IX Metaphysicae quod nihil intelligitur nisi secundum quod est in actu. Et potest accipi simile in rebus sensibilibus: nam id quod est in potentia tantum in eis, scilicet materia prima, non habet aliquam actionem per essentiam suam sed solum per formam ei adiunctam; substantiae autem sensibiles, quae sunt secundum aliquid in potentia et secundum aliquid in actu, secundum seipsas habent aliquam actionem. Similiter et intellectus possibilis, qui est tantum in potentia in ordine intelligibilium, nec intelligit nec intelligitur nisi per speciem in eo susceptam;
725. The reason why the potential intellect is not understood through its own essence but through an intelligible species is the fact that, in the order of intelligible things, it is only in potency; for, as it is proved in Metaphysics 9, nothing is understood except insofar as it is in act.1 And there is a like dependence in sensible realities too. For what in them is purely in potency, that is, prime matter, does not have any action through its own essence but only through some form joined to it; but sensible substances, which exist in a certain respect in potency and in a certain respect in act, have an action of themselves. So, too, the potential intellect, which is only in potency within the order of intelligible things, neither understands nor is understood except through the species received in it.
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726. Deus autem, qui est actus purus in ordine intelligibilium, et aliae substantiae separatae, quae sunt mediae inter potentiam et actum, per suam essentiam et intelligunt et intelliguntur.
726. But God, who in the order of intelligible things is pure actuality, and also the other separated substances, which are intermediates between potency and act, both understand and are understood through their own essence.
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727. Deinde cum dicit: non autem semper, respondet ad obiectionem quae erat in contrarium, dicens quod, ex quo intellectus possibilis habet aliquid quod facit ipsum intelligibilem sicut et alia, restat ut consideretur causa non semper intelligendi, id est quare non semper intelligibile intelligit; quod ideo est quia in rebus habentibus materiam species non est intelligibilis secundum actum, sed secundum potentiam tantum, intelligibile autem in potentia non est idem cum intellectu, sed solum intelligibile in actu, unde illis quae habent speciem in materia non inerit intellectus, ut scilicet intelligere possint, quia intellectus talium, id est intelligibilium, est quaedam potentia sine materia, illud autem quod est in materia est intelligibile, sed in potentia tantum; quod vero est in intellectu est species intelligibilis secundum actum.
727. Next, at the reason why (430a5), he answers an objection to the above solution. For if the potential intellect has something that makes it intelligible, like other things, it remains to consider why there is not always understanding, that is, why it does not always understand the intelligible. The reason is that in material things, the species is not actually intelligible but is only potentially so; and only what is actually intelligible, not the merely potentially so, is the same thing as the intellect; so that in them, the things that have their species in matter, there is no intellect, that is, they cannot understand. For the understanding of such things (that is, intelligible objects) is a certain immaterial potency. However, that which is in the matter is intelligible, but only potentially, whereas what is in an intellect is an actually intelligible species.
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L. 4 (Γ.5, 430a10–430a25)The agent intellect
Praeter possibiem intellectum, qui est omnia fieri, dari rursus in anima oportere alium agentem intellectum, qui est omnia facere, et qui est separabilis, impassibilis, et immixtus actu ostendit; conditiones item ponit ipsius intellectus in actu, concludens demum animae partem intellectivam esse penitus a corpore separabilem, cui competet alius intelligendi modus, quam nunc habeat
The agent intellect
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Quoniam autem sicut in omni natura est aliquid hoc quidem materia in unoquoque genere (hoc autem est potentia omnia illa), alterum autem causa et factivum, quod in faciendo omnia ut ars ad materiam sustinuit, necesse et in anima esse has differentias, et est huiusmodi quidem intellectus in quo omnia fiunt, ille vero quo omnia est facere, sicut habitus quidam, ut lumen: quodam enim modo et lumen facit potentia existentes colores actu colores.
Now, since in all nature there is something that is as matter in the genus (and is potentially all that is in the genus) and something else which is as cause and agent as making everything in it, as art with respect to its material, so there must be these differences in the soul. There is, in fact, an intellect of the sort that is able to become everything; and there is that which is able to make everything, as a sort of habit, like light; for light too, in a way, makes potential colors actual.
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Et hic intellectus separabilis et inpassibilis et inmixtus, substantia actu ens. Semper enim honorabilius est agens patiente et principium materia.
And this intellect is separable, impassible, and unmixed, in its substance a being in act. For the agent is always more honorable than the recipient, and the principle than its material.
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Idem autem est secundum actum scientia rei. Quae vero secundum potentiam tempore prior in uno est, omnino autem neque tempore. Sed non aliquando quidem intelligit, aliquando vero non intelligit.
But knowledge in act is the same as the thing itself. But what is potential is prior in time within one thing, yet this is not true universally, even with respect to time. But it does not understand at one time and not understand at another time.
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Separatus autem est solus hoc quod vere est. Et hoc solum inmortale et perpetuum est.
When separated, however, this alone exists truly. And this alone is immortal and perpetual.
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Non reminiscimur autem, quia hoc quidem inpassibile, passivus vero intellectus corruptibilis, et sine hoc nihil intelligit.
It does not remember, however, because it is impassible; but the passive intellect is corruptible, and the soul understands nothing without that.
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728. Quoniam autem sicut in omni natura etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de intellectu possibili, nunc determinat de intellectu agente. Et circa hoc duo facit:
728. Now, since in all nature (430a10). Having examined the potential intellect, the Philosopher now turns his attention to the agent intellect. And about this, he does two things.
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primo ostendit esse intellectum agentem praeter possibilem, et ratione, et exemplo;
First, he shows by argument and illustration that there is such a thing as the agent intellect beyond the potential intellect;
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secundo ostendit huius intellectus naturam, ibi: et hic intellectus.
second, at and this intellect (430a17; [732]), he explains its nature.
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Ponit ergo circa primum talem rationem: in omni natura quae est quandoque in potentia et quandoque in actu oportet ponere aliquid quod est sicut materia in unoquoque genere (quod scilicet est in potentia ad omnia quae sunt illius generis), et aliud quod est sicut causa agens et factivum, quod ita se habet in faciendo omnia sicut ars ad materiam; sed anima secundum partem intellectivam quandoque est in potentia et quandoque in actu; necesse est igitur in anima intellectiva esse has differentias, ut scilicet sit unus intellectus in quo possint omnia intelligibilia fieri (et hic est intellectus possibilis, de quo supra dictum est) et alius intellectus sit ad hoc quod possit omnia intelligibilia facere in actu (qui vocatur intellectus agens) et est sicut habitus quidam.
The argument he uses is this. In all nature, which is sometimes in potency and sometimes in actuality, we must posit something that is as matter in the genus (that is, what is potentially all the things that are in that genus); and another thing that is as an active and productive cause, as art with respect to its material. But soul in its intellectual part is sometimes in potency and sometimes in act. Therefore, there must be these differences in the intellectual soul: first, an intellect of the sort that it can become all intelligible things (this is the potential intellect already discussed);1 and also another intellect such that it can make everything intelligible in act. And this latter is called the “agent intellect”; and it stands as a sort of habit.
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729. Huius autem verbi occasione, quidam posuerunt intellectum agentem idem esse cum intellectu qui est habitus principiorum.
729. This last phrase has led some to suppose that the agent intellect is the same as the intellect that is the habitual possession of the principles.
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Quod esse non potest, quia intellectus qui est habitus principiorum praesupponit aliqua iam intellecta in actu, scilicet terminos principiorum per quorum intelligentiam cognoscimus principia, et sic sequeretur quod intellectus agens non faceret omnia intelligibilia in actu, ut hic philosophus dicit.
But it is not so; for the intellect that is the habit of the principles presupposes certain things that have already been actually understood, namely, the terms of the principles, through the grasping of which we know the principles. And then it would follow that the agent intellect did not make all intelligible objects in act, as the Philosopher here maintains.
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Dicendum est ergo quod habitus hic accipitur secundum quod philosophus frequenter consuevit nominare omnem formam et naturam habitum, prout habitus distinguitur contra privationem et potentiam, ut sic per hoc quod nominat eum habitum distinguat eum ab intellectu possibili qui est potentia.
Therefore, I hold that the term “habit” is used here in the sense in which the Philosopher often calls any form and nature a “habit,” insofar as a habit is distinct from privation and potency. In this case, the agent intellect is called a “habit” to distinguish it from the potential intellect, which is in potency.
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730. Unde dicit quod est habitus ut lumen, quod quodammodo facit colores existentes in potentia esse actu colores. Et dicit quodammodo, quia supra ostensum est quod color secundum seipsum est visibilis, hoc autem solummodo lumen facit ipsum esse actu colorem inquantum facit diaphanum esse in actu ut moveri possit a colore et sic color videatur; intellectus autem agens facit ipsa intelligibilia esse in actu, quae prius erant in potentia, per hoc quod abstrahit ea a materia: sic enim sunt intelligibilia in actu, ut dictum est.
730. So he calls it a habit like light, which in a way makes potential colors actual. He says, “in a way,” because, as we have seen, color is visible of itself; like only makes a color be in act insofar as it makes the transparent actual, such that it can be moved by color, and thereby the color is seen.1 The agent intellect, on the other hand, makes the intelligible objects themselves, which before were in potency, to be in act, through abstracting them from matter; for it is thus that they are intelligible in act, as was said.2
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731. Inducitur autem Aristoteles ad ponendum intellectum agentem ad excludendum opinionem Platonis, qui posuit quidditates rerum sensibilium esse a materia separatas et intelligibiles actu, unde non erat ei necessarium ponere intellectum agentem; sed quia Aristoteles ponit quod quidditates rerum sensibilium sunt in materia et non intelligibiles actu, oportuit quod poneret intellectum aliquem qui abstraheret eas a materia et sic faceret eas intelligibiles actu.
731. The reason why Aristotle is led to assert that there is an agent intellect is to rule out Plato’s view, which asserted that the whatnesses of sensible realities exist separately from matter, in a state of actual intelligibility. This is why, for Plato, there was no need to posit an agent intellect. But because Aristotle asserts that whatnesses of sensible realities exist in matter and are not intelligible in act, he had to assert that there is some intellect that abstracts them from matter and thus makes them intelligible in act.
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732. Deinde cum dicit: et hic intellectus, ponit quatuor conditiones intellectus agentis, quarum prima est quod sit separabilis, secunda quod sit impassibilis, tertia quod sit immixtus, id est non compositus ex naturis corporalibus neque adiunctus organo corporali, et in his tribus convenit cum intellectu possibili; quarta autem conditio est quod sit in actu secundum suam substantiam, in quo differt ab intellectu possibili, qui est in potentia secundum suam substantiam, sed est in actu solum secundum speciem susceptam.
732. Next, at and this intellect (430a17), he states four conditions of the agent intellect: first, its being separable; second, its being impassible; third, its being unmixed, that is, not composed of bodily natures nor conjoined with a bodily organ. Now, these three are also found in the potential intellect; but the fourth condition is that it is in act according to its own substance, and in this it differs from the potential intellect, which is in potency according to its own substance, but is in act only insofar as it has received a species.
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733. Et ad has quatuor conditiones probandas inducit unam rationem, quae talis est: agens est honorabilius patiente et principium activum materia; sed intellectus agens comparatur ad possibilem sicut agens ad materiam, sicut iam dictum est; ergo intellectus agens est nobilior possibili; sed intellectus possibilis est separatus, impassibilis et immixtus, ut supra ostensum est; ergo multo magis intellectus agens. Ex quo etiam patet quod sit secundum substantiam suam in actu, quia agens non est nobilius patiente et materia nisi secundum quod est in actu.
733. To demonstrate these four conditions he argues as follows. For the agent is always more honorable than the recipient, and the active principle than its material. But the agent intellect, as we have said, is to the potential intellect as an agent to its material; therefore the agent intellect is nobler than the potential; but the potential intellect is (as has been shown) separate, impassible, and unmixed; therefore the agent intellect will be even more so.1 From which also it is clear that the agent intellect is in act according to its own substance, for an agent is nobler than its patient and matter only insofar as it is in act.
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734. Occasione autem horum quae hic dicuntur, quidam posuerunt intellectum agentem substantiam separatam et quod differt secundum substantiam ab intellectu possibili.
734. Now, what is said here has led some to assert that the agent intellect is a separated substance, and that it differs in its substance from the potential intellect.
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Illud autem non videtur esse verum. Non enim homo esset sufficienter a natura institutus si non haberet in seipso principia quibus posset suam operationem explere, quae est intelligere; quae quidem compleri non potest nisi per intellectum possibilem et per intellectum agentem; unde perfectio humanae naturae requirit quod utrumque eorum sit aliquid in homine.
But this does not seem to be true; for man would not be adequately established by nature if he lacked within himself the principles whereby he can carry out his own activity, which is understanding; this of course cannot be brought to completion except through both the potential intellect and the agent intellect. Hence, the completion of human nature requires that both of these be something within a man.
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Videmus etiam quod, sicut operatio intellectus possibilis, quae est percipere intelligibile, attribuitur homini, ita etiam operatio intellectus agentis, quae est abstrahere intelligibilia; hoc autem non posset esse nisi principium formale huius actionis esset ei secundum esse coniunctum.
Moreover, we see that just as the potential intellect’s activity, which is perceiving the intelligible, is attributed to the man, so too is the activity of the agent intellect, which is the abstracting of intelligible objects. And this is not possible unless a formal principle of this activity were joined to him in his being.
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735. Nec sufficit, ad hoc quod haec actio attribuatur homini, hoc quod species intelligibiles factae per intellectum agentem habent quodammodo pro subiecto phantasmata quae sunt in nobis, quia, ut supra diximus cum de intellectu possibili ageretur, species non sunt intelligibiles in actu nisi secundum quod sunt abstractae a phantasmatibus et sic eis mediantibus actio intellectus agentis non posset nobis attribui; et praeterea intellectus agens comparatur ad species intellectas in actu sicut ars ad species artificiatorum, per quas manifestum est quod artificiata non habent actionem artis, unde, etiam dato quod species factae intelligibiles actu essent in nobis, non sequeretur quod nos possemus habere actionem intellectus agentis.
735. Nor is it enough, to attribute the action to the man, to say that the intelligible species made by the agent intellect have as their subject in some way the phantasms, which are internal to us. For, as we have already observed in treating of the potential intellect, the species become actually intelligible only insofar as they are abstracted from the phantasms; thus the act of the agent intellect could not be attributed to us by their mediation.1 Besides, the agent intellect is to the actually understood species as the art is to the species of the artifacts, and obviously the artifacts do not have the activity of the art; hence, even granted that the species made actually intelligible were in us, it would not follow that we can have the action of the agent intellect.
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736. Est etiam praedicta positio contra Aristotelis intentionem qui expresse dicit has duas differentias, scilicet intellectum agentem et intellectum possibilem, esse in anima, ex quo expresse dat intelligere quod sint partes vel potentiae animae et non aliquae substantiae separatae.
736. Nor does the above position agree with the intent of Aristotle, who expressly states that these two distinct things, the agent intellect and the potential intellect, are in the soul; thus, he expressly teaches us to understand that they are parts or powers of the soul and not separate substances.
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737. Sed contra hoc praecipue videtur esse quod intellectus possibilis comparatur ad intelligibilia ut in potentia existens ad illa, intellectus autem agens comparatur ad ea ut ens in actu; non autem quod idem respectu eiusdem possit esse in potentia et in actu; unde non videtur possibile quod intellectus agens et possibilis conveniant in una substantia animae.
737. The chief difficulty arises from the fact that, while the potential intellect is in potency to intelligible objects, the agent intellect stands to the latter as a being already in act. And the same thing cannot be in act and in potency relative to the same thing, and therefore it seems that it is not possible that the agent and the potential intellects should come together in the one substance of the soul.
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738. Sed hoc de facili solvitur, si quis recte consideret quomodo intellectus possibilis sit in potentia ad intelligibilia et quomodo intelligibilia sunt in potentia respectu intellectus agentis. Est enim intellectus possibilis in potentia ad intelligibilia sicut indeterminatum ad determinatum: nam intellectus possibilis non habet determinate naturam alicuius rerum sensibilium, unumquodque autem intelligibile est aliqua determinata natura alicuius speciei; unde supra dixit quod intellectus possibilis comparatur ad intelligibilia sicut tabula ad determinatas picturas. Quantum autem ad hoc, intellectus agens non est in actu:
738. But this is easily resolved if we understand how the potential intellect is in potency to intelligible objects, and how the intelligible objects are in potency with respect to the agent intellect. For the potential intellect is in potency to the intelligible as the indeterminate to the determinate; for the potential intellect does not have determinately the nature of any sensible thing, whereas each intelligible object is some determinate nature of some species—hence Aristotle’s earlier comparison of the potential intellect’s relation to intelligible objects with that of a tablet to determinate pictures.1 And from this point of view, the agent intellect is not in act.
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739. si enim intellectus agens haberet in se determinationem omnium intelligibilium, non indigeret intellectus possibilis phantasmatibus, sed per solum intellectum agentem reduceretur in actum omnium intelligibilium; et sic non compararetur ad intelligibilia ut faciens ad factum, ut philosophus hic dicit, sed ut existens ipsa intelligibilia. Comparatur igitur ut actus respectu intelligibilium inquantum est quaedam virtus immaterialis activa potens alia sibi similia facere, scilicet immaterialia, et per hunc modum ea quae sunt intelligibilia in potentia facit intelligibilia actu: sic enim et lumen facit colores in actu, non quod ipsum habeat in se determinationem omnium colorum. Huiusmodi autem virtus activa est quaedam participatio luminis intellectualis a substantiis separatis, et ideo philosophus dicit quod est sicut habitus, vel lumen, quod non competeret dici de eo si esset substantia separata.
739. For if the agent intellect had with itself the determination of all intelligible things, the potential intellect would not need the phantasms; rather, it would be reduced to the act of all intelligible things by the agent intellect alone. And thus, the agent intellect is not related to intelligible objects as a maker to the thing made, as the Philosopher here says, but as being the intelligible things themselves. Therefore, it is related as to the intelligible objects as an act insofar as it is a certain immaterial active power capable of making other things like itself—that is, making them immaterial; and in this way things that are potentially intelligible it makes actually intelligible. For so too does light make colors actual, but it does not have within itself the determination of all the colors. But this active power is a certain participation in the intellectual light of separated substances, so the Philosopher compares it to a habit, or a light, which would not be an appropriate way of describing it if it were itself a separate substance.
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740. Deinde cum dicit: idem autem est etc., determinat de intellectu secundum actum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
740. Next, at but knowledge in act (430a19), he states his conclusions concerning intellect as in act. And about this he does two things.
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primo ponit conditiones intellectus in actu;
First, he states the conditions of the intellect in act.
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secundo ostendit conditiones totius partis intellectivae secundum quod differt ab aliis partibus animae, ibi: separatus autem etc.
Second, at when separated (430a22; [742]), he shows how the intellectual part of the soul in general differs from the rest of the soul.
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Circa primum tres ponit conditiones intellectus in actu.
Regarding the former point, he states three conditions of the intellect in act.
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Quarum prima est quod scientia in actu est idem rei scitae, quod non est verum de intellectu in potentia.
First, its actual knowledge is the same as the thing known, which is not true of the intellect in potency.
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Secunda conditio eius est quod scientia in potentia in uno et eodem est tempore prior quam scientia in actu, sed universaliter non est prior, non solum natura, sed neque etiam tempore; et hoc est quod Philosophus dicit in IX Metaphysicae quod actus est prior potentia natura, tempore vero in uno et eodem potentia prior est actu, quia unum et idem prius est in potentia, et postea fit actu, sed universaliter loquendo etiam tempore actus est prior: nam quod est in potentia non reducitur in actum nisi per aliquid quod est actu, et sic etiam de potentia sciente non fit aliquis actu sciens nec inveniendo nec addiscendo nisi per aliquam scientiam praeexistentem in actu, quia omnis doctrina et disciplina intellectiva fit ex praeexistenti cognitione, ut dicitur in I Posteriorum.
Second, though within one and the same thing potential knowledge is prior in time to actual knowledge, yet, speaking universally, this is not the case, neither in nature nor with respect to time. In Metaphysics 9, Aristotle had said that act is by nature prior to potency, but potency is prior to act in time within one and the same thing, since a thing is first in potency and afterwards in act.1 But universally speaking, act is prior even in time, because no potency would ever be actualized unless something were already in act. So, even in the case of potential knowledge, someone does not become an actual knower, whether by discovery or by learning from a teacher, unless through some preexisting knowledge, since all intellectual teaching and learning arise from preexisting knowledge, as it is said in Posterior Analytics 1.2
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741. Tertia conditio intellectus in actu est per quam differt ab intellectu possibili et intellectu agente, quorum uterque quandoque intelligit et quandoque non intelligit; sed hoc non potest dici de intellectu in actu, qui consistit in ipso intelligere.
741. The third condition of the intellect in act distinguishes it from both the potential intellect and the agent intellect, both of which sometimes understand and sometimes do not understand. But this cannot be said of the intellect in act, for it consists in understanding itself.
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742. Deinde cum dicit: separatus autem, ponit conditiones totius intellectivae partis.
742. Next, at when separated (430a22), he states the conditions of the whole intellectual part.
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Et primo proponit veritatem;
And first, he points to the truth;
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secundo excludit obiectionem, ibi: non reminiscimur.
second, he refutes an objection, at it does not remember (430a23; [744]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod solus intellectus separatus est hoc quod vere est. Quod quidem non potest intelligi neque de intellectu agente neque de intellectu possibili tantum, sed de utroque, quia de utroque supra dixit quod est separatus; et sic patet quod hic loquitur de tota parte intellectiva, quae quidem dicitur separata ex hoc quod habet operationem sine organo corporali.
He says, then, that the intellect alone, when separated, truly exists; and this cannot be understood only of the agent or potential intellect, but of both together, since both have been described as separated.1 And thus it is clear that he is speaking of the whole intellectual part, which indeed is called “separate” because it has an activity without a bodily organ.
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743. Et quia in principio huius libri dixit quod, si aliqua operatio animae sit propria ei, contingit animam separari, concludit quod haec sola pars animae, scilicet intellectiva, est incorruptibilis et perpetua; et hoc est quod supra supposuit in II, quod hoc genus animae separatur ab aliis sicut perpetuum a corruptibili. Dicitur autem perpetua non quia semper fuerit, sed quia semper erit; unde Philosophus dicit in XI Metaphysicae quod forma numquam est ante materiam, sed posterius remanet anima, non omnis sed intellectus.
743. And because he said at the beginning of this book that if any activity of the soul is proper to it, the soul could be separated, he concludes that only this part of the soul (that is, the intellectual part) is incorruptible and perpetual.1 This is what he has said in book 2, namely, that this kind of soul was separable from others as the perpetual from the corruptible—perpetual in the sense that it will always exist, not in the sense that it always has existed;2 for as he shows in Metaphysics 12, forms cannot exist before their matter.3 The soul, then (not all of it, but only the intellect) will survive its matter.
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744. Deinde cum dicit: non reminiscimur, excludit quamdam obiectionem. Posset enim aliquis credere quod, quia pars intellectiva animae est incorruptibilis, remanet post mortem in anima intellectiva scientia rerum eodem modo quo nunc eam habet, cuius contrarium supra dixit in I, quod intelligere corrumpitur quodam interius corrupto, et quod corrupto corpore non reminiscitur neque amat.
744. Next, at it does not remember (430a23), he meets an objection. For someone might suppose that, because part of the soul is incorruptible, after death the knowledge of things would remain in the way as it is now. But already in book 1, he has disallowed this, where he observed that understanding must cease with the decay of something else within; and that after death the soul does not remember or love.1
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745. Et ideo hic dicit quod non reminiscitur, scilicet post mortem eorum, quae in vita scivimus, quia hoc quidem impassibile est, id est ista pars animae intellectivae impassibilis est, unde ipsa non est subiectum passionum animae, sicut sunt amor et odium et reminiscentia et huiusmodi quae cum aliqua passione corporali contingunt; passivus vero intellectus corruptibilis est, id est pars animae quae est subiecta praedictis passionibus est corruptibilis: pertinent enim ad partem sensitivam (tamen haec pars animae dicitur intellectus, sicut et dicitur rationalis inquantum aliqualiter participat rationem obediendo rationi et sequendo motum eius, ut dicitur in I Ethicorum); sine hac autem parte animae corruptibili, intellectus noster nihil intelligit: non enim intelligit aliquid sine phantasmate, ut infra dicetur, et ideo destructo corpore non remanet in anima separata scientia rerum secundum eundem modum quo modo intelligit. Sed quomodo tunc intelligat, non est praesentis intentionis discutere.
745. So now he adds that what we have known in life it does not remember after death because it is impassible, that is, that part of the intellectual soul is impassible; it is, therefore, not subject to the passions of the soul, such as love and hatred and recollection and so forth, which all depend on some passion of the body. But the passive intellect—that is, the part of the soul that is subject to the passions mentioned—is corruptible, for it pertains to the sensitive part. Nevertheless, this part of the soul is called an “intellect” just as it is also called “rational”: inasmuch as it in some way participates in reason by being obedient to reason, and by following its movement, as is said in the Ethics.1 But without this corruptible part of the soul, our intellect understands nothing; for the intellect understands nothing without a phantasm, as we shall see below.2 Hence, after the body’s destruction, there does not remain in the separated soul knowledge of things in the same way as it understands now. But how it does understand anything then is not part of our present inquiry.
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L. 5 (Γ.6–7, 430a26–431a4)Intellectual activities with simple and complex intelligibles
Duplicem esse intellectus operationem exponit: unam circa indivisibilia et simplicia, in qua nec verum nec falsum est nisi per accidens; alteram, circa compositionem et divisionem conceptuum secundum affirmationem et negationem, in qua iam verum vel falsum est
Intellectual activities with simple and complex intelligibles
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Indivisibilium quidem igitur intelligentia in his est circa quae non est falsum, in quibus autem et falsum iam et verum est, compositio quaedam iam intellectuum est, sicut eorum quae unum sunt.
The intellectual grasping of indivisible things is, therefore, about things where there is no falsehood. But in things where there is immediately falsehood and truth, there is also immediately some composition of things understood, as of many brought to a unity.
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Quemadmodum Empedocles dixit: vere multorum quidem capita sine cervice germinaverunt, postea composita sunt concordia. Sic et haec separata composita sunt, ut assimetron et dyametros aut symetrum et dyametros.
As Empedocles said, the heads of many grew with no neck, but concord afterwards brought them together. So in the same way, these separate things are combined, like the diagonal and the incommensurate or the diagonal and the commensurate.
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Si autem factorum et futurorum, tempus cointelligens et componens: falsum enim in compositione semper est, et namque si album non album aut si non album album composuit; contingit autem et divisionem dicere omnia; sic ergo est non solum falsum aut verum quod albus Cleon est, sed et quod erat aut erit. Unum autem faciens unumquodque, hoc intellectus est.
If the composition be of things done, or of future events, time also is taken into the reckoning with the composition. For falsity always occurs in a composition, for instance, if one has combined the white and the not-white, or not-white with the white. All these statements can also be divisions. It is not only, then, false or true that Cleon is white, but that he was or will be. But it is the intellect that makes each of these one.
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Indivisibile autem, quoniam dupliciter, potentia aut actu, est, nihil prohibet intelligere indivisibile, cum longitudinem intelligat:
As the indivisible, however, is twofold, either potentially or actually, there is nothing to prevent the understanding of an indivisible when one understands a length.
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indivisibilis enim actualiter est; et in tempore indivisibili: similiter enim tempus divisibile et indivisibile longitudini est. Non igitur est dicere aliquid in medio intelligere utrumque: non enim esset, nisi divideretur, sed aut potentia.
For it is actually indivisible, and in an indivisible time; for time is divisible and indivisible the way length is. It is not right, then, to say that the intellect understands both by halving both; for there is no half, save potentially, unless it were to be divided.
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Seorsum autem utrumque intelligens dimidiorum, dividit et tempus simul tunc ut in longitudine. Si vero est sicut ex utrisque, et in tempore est quod in utrisque.
However, in understanding separately each of the halves, it divides the time also, which is then divided like the length. But if it is as made up of both, then there is something corresponding to each in the time also.
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Quod autem non secundum quantitatem indivisible est sed specie, intelligit indivisibili tempore et indivisibili animae. Secundum accidens autem et non in quantum illa divisibilia quod intelligitur et in quo tempore, sed in quantum indivisibilia: inest autem utique his aliquid indivisibile. Sic forte non separabile quod facit tempus unum et longitudinem, sed hoc similiter in omni est continuo et tempore et longitudine.
But that which is indivisible not in quantity but in species, the intellect understands in an indivisible time and in an indivisible act of the soul. What is understood is understood accidentally, however, and not insofar as they are divisible and in that time; rather, it understands them insofar as they are indivisible; there is indeed in these things something indivisible. In this way perhaps what makes the time one and the length one is not separable; but this holds of all that is continuous, whether by time or extension.
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Punctum autem et omne divisio et sic indivisibile monstratur sicut privatio. Et similis ratio in aliis est, ut quomodo malum cognoscit aut nigrum: contrario enim aliquo modo cognoscit. Oportet autem potentia esse cognoscens et esse in ipso. Si vero alicui non inest contrarium, ipsum se ipsum cognoscit et actu est et separabile.
A point, however, and every division and what is thus indivisible is shown as a privation. A similar account holds in other matters, as how one knows evil or black; for in some way the knowledge is by contrariety. But the knowing power must be in potency, and it must be in it. But if there is something to which there is no contrary, it is self-knowing, and in act, and separate.
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Est autem dictio quidem aliquid de aliquo, sicut affirmatio, vera aut falsa omnis; intellectus autem non omnis sed qui est ipsius quid est secundum hoc quod aliquid erat esse verus est, et non aliquid de aliquo, sed sicut videre proprii verum est, si autem homo album aut non, non verum semper. Sic autem se habent quaecumque sine materia sunt.
Now, every utterance, e.g., an affirmation, something said about something else, is either true or false. Yet not all understanding is thus; understanding that is of what a thing is, according to the what-it-was-to-be is true, and not something belonging to something else; rather, as sight of the proper object is true, but as whether the white thing is a man or not, it is not always true. So it stands with whatever things exist without matter.
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Idem autem est secundum actum scientia rei, quae vero secundum potentiam, tempore prior est in uno, omnino autem neque tempore: sunt enim ex actu ente omnia quae fiunt.
Knowledge in act is the same as the thing itself. But what is potential is prior in time in the individual, though universally it is not prior even in time; for all things that are in act come to be from a being in act.
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746. Indivisibilium quidem igitur etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de intellectu, hic determinat de operatione intellectus. Et dividitur in partes duas:
746. The intellectual grasping of indivisible things (430a26). Having come to conclusions about the intellect, the Philosopher now examines its activity; and this is divided into two parts.
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in prima distinguit duas operationes intellectus;
In the first, he distinguishes two such activities;
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in secunda determinat de utraque earum, ibi: indivisibile autem quoniam dupliciter etc.
in the second, he reaches conclusions about each of these, at as the indivisible, however, is twofold (430b6; [752]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod una operatio intellectus est secundum quod intelligit indivisibilia, puta cum intelligit hominem aut bovem aut aliquid aliud huiusmodi incomplexorum, et haec intelligentia est in his circa quae non est falsum, tum quia incomplexa neque sunt vera neque falsa, tum quia intellectus non decipitur in quod quid est, ut infra dicetur;
First, then, he says that the intellect, by one of its activities, understands indivisible things, for instance, when it understands man or ox, or any such non-composed thing, simply in itself. And this is about things where there is no falsehood, both because non-composed things are neither true nor false, and also because, as we shall see later on, the intellect is not deceived about what a thing is.1
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747. sed in illis intelligibilibus in quibus falsum et verum est, est iam quaedam compositio intellectuum, id est rerum intellectarum, sicut quando ex multis fit aliquid unum. Et ponit exemplum secundum opinionem Empedoclis qui opinabatur quod omnia generata sunt a casu, non propter aliquem finem, sed secundum quod contingit ex divisione rerum per litem et coniunctione per amicitiam, unde dixit quod a principio germinaverunt multa capita sine cervice et similiter multae aliae partes animalium separatae ab aliis partibus (et dicit “germinaverunt,” quasi ex elementis producta sine semine animalis, sicut terra germinat herbam virentem), sed postmodum huiusmodi partes sic divisae compositae sunt per concordiam et ex eis factum est unum animal habens diversas partes, ut puta caput, manus, pedes et similia, et ubi constitutum est animal habens omnes partes necessarias ad sui conservationem, illud animal salvatum est et generavit sibi simile, si autem defuit aliqua illarum partium, non potuit salvari nec remansit in sibi simili per generationem. Sicut ergo Empedocles posuit quod amicitia composuit multas partes et constituit ex eis unum animal, ita et intellectus multa incomplexa prius separata componit et facit ex eis unum intellectum, in qua compositione quandoque est veritas quandoque falsitas,
747. On the other hand, in things where there is falsehood and truth, there is immediately some composition of things understood, that is, of the realities understood, as when many become something one. He gives, as an example, the theory of Empedocles that all things originated by chance, not for the sake of any end, but by merely following the division of things, through strife, and the conjunction of things through friendship. Thus Empedocles said that in the beginning many heads grew with no neck, and similarly, that many other parts of animals grew up in separation from other parts; and he says, “grew,” as though these things sprang from the elements, not from the seed of animals, as grass grows from the earth.1 Only afterwards did these parts, thus divided, come together in harmony and make up the single animal with its various parts—head, hands, feet, and so on. And where all the parts necessary for the animal’s preservation were present, it was preserved and would beget its own kind, but if any were lacking, it could not be preserved and did not remain through its generation of a like. So then, just as friendship, according to Empedocles, brought together the different parts of animals and formed of them one animal, so too, the intellect is able to combine many non-composed and separate objects and make one intelligible object of them. And such combinations are sometimes true and sometimes false.
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748. veritas quidem quando componit ea quae in re sunt unum vel composita, sicut cum componit asymmetrum, hoc est incommensurabile, et diametrum (nam diameter quadrati est incommensurabilis lateri), falsa autem est compositio quando componit ea quae non sunt composita in rebus, sicut cum componit symmetrum diametro, dicens quod diameter quadrati est symmeter, id est commensurabilis lateri;
748. They are true when they put together what are combined and one in reality, for example, the diagonal and incommensurability (that is, lacking a common measure, for the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with its sides). And they are false when they put together what are not combined in reality, saying, for example, that the diagonal of a square is commensurable with its sides.
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749. symmetrum ergo et diametrum aliquando separatim et seorsum intelligit intellectus et tunc sunt duo intelligibilia; quando autem componit, fit unum intelligibile et simul intelligitur ab intellectu. Sed quia intellectus non semper componit ea quae sunt in praesenti, sed quae fuerunt vel erunt, ideo subiungit quod, si intellectus faciat compositionem factorum, id est praeteritorum, et futurorum, oportet quod cointelligat suae compositioni tempus praeteritum et futurum; et sic componit formans compositionem de praeterito vel futuro.
749. Therefore, commensurability and the diagonal are sometimes understood separately, and then they are two intelligible objects; but when one combines them, they make one intelligible object, and it is understood by the intellect at once. But since the intellect does not always combine things that are in the present, but sometimes things that were or will be, he adds that if the intellect makes a combination of things done—that is, past—or future events, it must include as well in its composition the past or future time; and in this way its combination will refer to past or future.
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750. Et quod hoc sit verum, probat, quia contingit compositiones de praeterito vel de futuro esse falsas, falsum autem semper in compositione est,
750. And he proves this by saying that combinations concerning past or future may be false, but that falsity always occurs in a composition.
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et namque falsum est si non album componatur ei quod est album, ut si dicam: cygnus non est albus, aut album componatur ei quod est non album, ut si dicam quod corvus est albus; et quia quodcumque contingit affirmare contingit etiam negare, subiungit quod omnia praedicta possunt fieri per divisionem:
As for instance, there is falsehood if the not-white is combined with what is white, as if I were to say, “swans are not white”; or, if white is combined with the not-white, as if I were to say, “crows are white.” And because all that can be affirmed can also be denied, he adds that all these combinations might also have been divisions.
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751. potest enim anima dividere et secundum praesens tempus et secundum praeteritum et futurum et vere et false; sic ergo patet quod, cum compositio et divisio non solum fit secundum praesens tempus, sed secundum praeteritum et futurum, verum autem et falsum consistit in compositione et divisione, oportet quod verum et falsum non solum sint in propositionibus de praesenti, puta quod Cleon est albus, sed etiam in illis de praeterito et futuro, puta quod Cleon erit vel fuit albus.
751. For the soul can divide things both according to the present time, and according to the past and future, and it can do this both truly and falsely. Not only, then, is it clear that, since combination and division can be made not only with reference to the present time, but also the past and future, whereas truth and falsehood consist in combination and division, it is necessary that not only are propositions about the present true or false—for example, that Cleon is white—but also propositions about the past or future—for example, that Cleon will be or was white.
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Considerandum autem est quod compositio propositionis non est opus naturae, sed est opus rationis et intellectus, et ideo subiungit quod illud quod facit <unum> unumquodque intelligibilium, componendo ex intelligibilibus propositiones, hoc est intellectus. Et quia verum et falsum consistit in compositione, ideo dicitur in VI Metaphysicae quod verum et falsum non est in rebus, sed in mente.
However, one should consider that the combination of a proposition is not a work of nature, but a work of reason and understanding; and therefore he adds that what makes each of the intelligible things into one thing, by composing propositions from intelligible things, is the intellect. And since the true and the false exist in combinations, he can say, in Metaphysics 6, that truth and falsehood are not in the realities but in the mind.1
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752. Deinde cum dicit: indivisibile autem, determinat de utraque praedictarum operationum.
752. Next, at as the indivisible, however (430b6), he comes to conclusions on both the aforesaid intellectual activities:
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Et primo de ea quae est intelligentia indivisibilium;
first, on the intellectual grasping of indivisible objects;
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secundo de ea quae est compositio et divisio, ibi: est autem dictio quidem etc.;
second, at now, every utterance (430b26; [760]), on the intellect’s combinations and divisions;
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tertio ponit quiddam quod est commune utrique, ibi: idem autem est secundum actum.
third, he states something common to both, at knowledge in act (431a1; [764]).
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Prima pars dividitur in tres, secundum quod indivisibile tripliciter dicitur, quot modis dicitur et unum, cuius ratio ex indivisione est.
The first divides into three parts according to three ways in which one speaks of the “indivisible”—that is to say, the three ways of speaking of unity, the account of which comes from non-division.
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Dicitur enim uno modo aliquid unum continuitate, unde et id quod est continuum indivisibile dicitur inquantum non est divisum actu, licet sit divisibile potentia. Hoc est ergo quod dicit quod, cum indivisibile dicitur dupliciter, scilicet actu et potentia, nihil prohibet intellectum intelligere indivisibile, cum intelligit aliquid continuum, scilicet longitudinem, quae est indivisibilis in actu licet sit divisibilis potentia; et propter hoc intelligit eam in indivisibili tempore, quia intelligit eam ut indivisibilem
First of all, something is said to be one by continuity; hence, a continuum is called “indivisible” because it is not actually divided, though it is potentially divisible. So he says that, since the indivisible is spoken of as twofold, either potentially or actually, there is nothing to prevent the intellect’s understanding of an indivisible when one understands something continuous, like a length, which is actually indivisible, although potentially divisible. And because of this, the intellect understands it in an indivisible time, because it understands it as indivisible.
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753. (et hoc est contra opinionem Platonis in I positam, qui posuit intelligentiam fieri quasi per motum quemdam continuum magnitudinis). Potest ergo intellectus intelligere magnitudinem dupliciter: uno modo secundum quod est divisibilis in potentia, et sic intelligit lineam numerando partem post partem et sic intelligit eam in tempore; alio modo secundum quod est indivisa actu, et sic intelligit eam ut unum quid constans ex multis partibus et <sic> intelligit eam simul. Et ideo subiungit quod similiter tempus et longitudo dividitur vel non dividitur intelligendo.
753. This is against the view of Plato, who posited the understanding as occurring through a certain continuous movement of magnitude.1 In fact, the intellect can understand a magnitude in two ways: either as potentially divisible—and thus the intellect understands a line by numbering one part after another, and thereby understands it in a period of time; or as actually undivided—and thus it understands it as one thing made up of many parts, and thereby it is understood simultaneously. He adds, therefore, that, in the act of understanding, a time and a length are divided or not divided in the same way.
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754. Unde non est dicere quod intelligatur secundum medium utriusque, id est quod media pars intelligatur in medio temporis: hoc enim non esset nisi linea divideretur in actu, sed est divisibilis tantum potentia. Si autem utrumque dimidium lineae seorsum intelligat, tunc dividit lineam in actu secundum intellectum, unde et tunc tempus simul dividitur sicut et longitudo. Si autem intelligat lineam sicut unum quid constitutum ex duabus partibus, etiam intelliget in tempore non diviso, sed secundum aliquid quod est in utrisque partibus temporis, scilicet in instanti, et si continuetur consideratio per aliquod tempus, non dividetur tempus ut aliud intelligat in una parte temporis et aliud in alia, sed idem in utraque.
754. Consequently, it cannot be said that the understanding involves dividing both by half, that is, that half a line is understood in half the given time. For this would not be so unless the line were to be actually divided, but it is divisible only potentially. If each of the line’s halves, however, is understood separately, then the whole is actually divided in the intellect; this is why it divides the time also, the way the length is. But if the line is understood as one thing made up of two parts, it will be understood in an undivided time—but as something that is in both parts of the time, that is, in the instant, and if the intellect’s consideration is prolonged in time, the time will not be divided such that it understands one thing in one part of time and something else in another, but rather the same thing in both.
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755. Deinde cum dicit: quod autem non secundum quantitatem, ponit alium modum indivisibilis: nam dicitur alio modo unum quod habet speciem unam, etiam si sit compositum ex partibus non continuis, sicut homo aut domus aut etiam exercitus, et huic respondet indivisibile secundum speciem. Et de hoc dicit hic quod illud quod est indivisibile non secundum quantitatem sed secundum speciem, intelligit anima tempore indivisibili et per indivisibilem animae partem, non quod intellectus intelligens sit velut aliqua magnitudo ut Plato posuit. Et licet quod est indivisibile specie habeat aliquam divisionem in partibus, tamen illa divisa intelligit per accidens non inquantum sunt divisibilia et ex parte eius quod intelligitur et ex parte temporis, sed inquantum sunt indivisibilia, quia in partibus divisis etiam in actu est aliquid indivisibile, scilicet ipsa species quam intellectus indivisibiliter intelligit; sed si intelligeret partes ut divisas, puta carnem per se et os per se et sic de aliis, tunc intelligeret in tempore divisibili.
755. Next, at but that which is indivisible in quantity (430b14), he mentions another mode of indivisibility; for what has one species is called “one” in a different way, even if it is made up of discontinuous parts, for example, a man, or a house, or even of an army; this corresponds to the indivisible according to species. And of this he says that what is indivisible not in quantity, but in its species, the soul understands in an indivisible time and through an indivisible part of the soul—not, as Plato thought, that the intellect when understanding is some magnitude. And even if what is specifically indivisible has a certain division in its parts, still the intellect understands those divided parts accidentally, and not insofar as they are divisible, whether on the side of what is understood and on the side of time, but rather, insofar as they are indivisible; for even in the actually divided parts, there is something indivisible, and this is the species itself, which the intellect understands in an indivisible way. But if the parts are understood as divided—for example, the flesh in itself and bones in itself and so forth—then it will understand in a divisible time.
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756. Vult autem Philosophus consequenter ostendere similitudinem huius ad primum modum: sicut enim in hoc modo est aliquid indivisibile, scilicet species quae facit omnes partes totius esse unum, sic forte in continuis est aliquid non separabile, id est indivisibile, quod facit tempus esse unum et longitudinem unam, sive hoc dicatur esse punctum in longitudine et instans in tempore, sive ipsa species longitudinis aut temporis, sed in hoc differt quod istud indivisibile est similiter in omni continuo et tempore et longitudine, sed indivisibile quod est species non est similiter in omnibus habentibus speciem, quia quaedam componuntur ex partibus homogeneis, quaedam ex partibus heterogeneis, et ex his dissimiliter.
756. But the Philosopher wishes then to show a likeness to the first mode of unity. For just as in this way there is something indivisible, that is, the species, which makes all the parts of the whole be one thing, so perhaps in continuous things there is something not separable, that is, indivisible, that makes the time one and the length one—whether this is said to be the point, in length, and in time, the instant, or the very species of length or time. But there is this difference, that it is indivisible in all that is continuous, whether by time or extension, but the indivisible that is a species is not similarly in all things that have species, since some are composed of homogeneous parts, and some of heterogeneous parts, and of the latter in different ways.
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757. Deinde cum dicit: punctum autem etc., prosequitur de indivisibili tertio modo dicto: dicitur enim unum quod est penitus indivisibile, ut punctus et unitas. Et de hoc ostendit nunc quomodo intelligatur, dicens quod punctum, quod est quoddam signum divisionis inter partes lineae, et omne quod est divisio inter partes continui, sicut instans inter partes temporis et sic de aliis, et omne quod est sic indivisibile actu et potentia ut punctus, monstratur, id est manifestatur intellectui, sicut privatio, id est per privationem continui et divisibilis.
757. Then, at a point (430b20), he shows how the third sort of indivisibility is understood, for that is also called “one” which is entirely indivisible, such as a point or unit. And he now shows how this is understood, when he says that a point, which is a sort of sign of division between the parts of a line, and every division between the parts of a continuum, like an instant between the parts of time and so on, and everything that is thus indivisible, both actually and potentially, like a point, is shown, that is, is made manifest, to the intellect as a privation, that is, through a privation of the continuous and divisible.
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758. Cuius ratio est quia intellectus noster accipit a sensu et ideo ea prius cadunt in apprehensione intellectus nostri quae sunt sensibilia et huiusmodi sunt magnitudinem habentia, unde punctus et unitas non definiuntur nisi negative; et inde est etiam quod omnia quae transcendunt haec sensibilia nota nobis, non cognoscuntur a nobis nisi per negationem, sicuti de substantiis separatis cognoscimus quod sunt immateriales et incorporeae et alia huiusmodi.
758. The reason for this is that our intellect receives from the senses, and therefore, sensibles are the first things intellectually apprehended. And these all have some magnitude; hence, the point and the unit are only negatively defined. For the same reason, whatever transcends the sensibles which we apprehend is known by us only negatively. For example, of separated substances we only know that they are immaterial and incorporeal and so forth.
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759. Et similis ratio est in aliis quae cognoscuntur per oppositum, ut quomodo cognoscit intellectus malum aut nigrum, quae se habent ad sua opposita ut privationes (semper enim alterum contrariorum est ut imperfectum et privatio respectu alterius)? Et subiungit quasi respondens quod intellectus cognoscit utrumque istorum aliquo modo suo contrario, scilicet malum per bonum et nigrum per album.
759. A similar account holds in other matters that are known by opposition, as in how the intellect knows evil or black, which stand to their opposites as privations; for of two contraries one is always incomplete or a privation relative to the other. So he adds, in response, that the intellect knows both of them in some way by its contrariety: evil through good and black through white.
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Oportet autem quod intellectus noster, qui sic cognoscit unum contrariorum per alterum, sit in potentia cognoscens et quod in ipso sit species unius oppositi per quam aliud cognoscit, ita quod quandoque sit in ipso species albi et quandoque species nigri, ut per unum possit cognoscere alterum. Si autem est aliquis intellectus cui non inest unum contrariorum ad cognitionem alterius, tunc oportet quod talis intellectus cognoscat seipsum primo et per se cognoscat alia, et quod sit semper in actu, et quod sit penitus separabile a materia et secundum esse, ut ostensum est de intellectu Dei in XI Metaphysicae.
But our intellect, which in this way knows one contrary through another, must be knowing in potency, and what is in it, through which it knows the opposite, must be the species of the other opposite; in this way, at one time the species of white is in it, and at another time the species of black, and thereby it can know the latter through the former. But if there exists an intellect to which there is no knowing one contrary from the other, such an intellect must know its very self primarily and know other things through itself, and it must be always in act and entirely separate from matter and in its being, as is shown of the divine intellect in Metaphysics 12.1
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760. Deinde cum dicit: est autem dictio, determinat de secunda operatione intellectus, quae est compositio et divisio. Et dicit quod dictio qua dicit intellectus aliquid de aliquo, sicut contingit in affirmatione, semper est vera aut falsa, sed intellectus non semper est verus aut falsus, quia est intellectus incomplexorum qui neque est verus neque falsus quantum ad id quod intelligitur: veritas enim et falsitas consistit in quadam comparatione unius ad alterum, quae quidem est in compositione et divisione intellectus, non autem in intelligibili incomplexo.
760. Then, at now, every utterance (430b26), he states a conclusion about the intellect’s second activity, which is combination and division. He says that an utterance, that whereby the intellect says something about something else—as happens in affirmation—is always either true or false. But not all understanding, however, is always true or false, since there is the understanding of non-composed objects which is neither true nor false in regard to what is being understood. For truth and falsehood consist in a certain comparison of one thing to another, as when the intellect combines or distinguishes; but they are not in the non-composed intelligible object.
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761. Sed tamen, licet ipsum intelligibile incomplexum non sit neque verum neque falsum, tamen intellectus intelligendo ipsum verus est inquantum adaequatur rei intellectae; et ideo subdit quod intellectus qui est ipsius quid est secundum hoc quod aliquid erat esse, id est secundum quod intelligit quid est res, verus est semper, et non secundum quod intelligit aliquid de aliquo.
761. Yet though this non-composed intelligible object is neither true nor false, the intellect understanding it is true insofar as it is conformed to the reality understood. So he adds that understanding of what a thing is, according to the what-it-was-to-be, that is, insofar as it understands what the thing is, is always true; but not insofar as it understands something belonging to something else.
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762. Et huius rationem assignat quia quod quid est proprium obiectum intellectus, unde, sicut visus nunquam decipitur in proprio obiecto, ita nec intellectus in cognoscendo quod quid est, unde intellectus nunquam decipitur in cognoscendo quod quid est homo; sed, sicut visus non semper verus est in iudicando de his quae sunt adiuncta proprio obiecto, puta si album est homo vel non, sic nec intellectus semper est verus in componendo aliquid alicui. Sic autem se habent in intelligendo substantiae separatae quae penitus sunt sine materia, sicut cum nos intelligimus quod quid est; et ideo in eorum intellectu non contingit esse falsum.
762. The reason for this is that, as he says, what a thing is, is the proper object of the intellect; hence, just as sight is never mistaken with respect to its proper object, so neither is the intellect in knowing what a thing is. This is why it is never deceived in knowing what a man is; rather, just as sight is not always true in the judgment of things that are joined with its proper object, for example, in that some white thing is a man, so, too, the intellect is not always true in combining something with something else. So it stands in the understanding of a separated substance, which substances wholly exist without matter, the way it is when we understand what a thing is; and this is why there is no falsity in their intellects.
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763. Sciendum tamen quod in cognoscendo quod quid est contingit esse deceptionem per accidens dupliciter, ratione compositionis intervenientis: uno modo prout definitio unius rei est falsa ad aliam rem, sicut definitio circuli est falsa ad triangulum; alio modo prout partes definitionis non cohaerent sibi invicem, et tunc definitio est falsa simpliciter, ut si aliquis ponat definitionem alicuius animal insensibile; unde in illis in quorum definitionibus nulla est compositio non contingit esse deceptionem, sed oportet ea vel intelligere vere vel nullo modo, ut dicitur in IX Metaphysicae.
763. But note that even in knowing what a thing is, a deception can occur accidentally, in two ways, on account of intervening composition: in one way, inasmuch as one thing’s definition becomes false when applied to another thing (for example, the definition of a circle applied to a triangle); and in another way, inasmuch as the parts of a definition do not agree with each other, in which case, the definition is false simply speaking (for example, if one were to include “lacking sense-perception” in the definition of some animal). Whence it follows that deception cannot occur where the definition involves no combining; in this case, one either understands truly or not at all, as is said in Metaphysics 9.1
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764. Deinde cum dicit: idem autem est secundum actum etc., resumit quiddam quod supra dictum est de intellectu secundum actum, eo quod tunc etiam de actu intellectus locutus est. Et dicit quod scientia secundum actum est idem rei scitae secundum actum et quod scientia quae est secundum potentiam est in uno et eodem prior tempore, sed universaliter neque etiam tempore prior est, quia omnia quae fiunt in actu fiunt ex ente in actu. Et hoc supra expositum est.
764. Finally, at knowledge in act (431a1), he takes up again something he has said earlier of the intellect in act, because then he has also spoken of the thing actually understood. And he says that actual knowledge is the same as the reality actually known, and that the knowledge that is potential is prior in time in the same individual; but universally speaking, it is not prior even in time; for all things that are in act come to be from a being in act, as was explained above.1
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L. 6 (Γ.7, 431a4–431b19)Sense and intellect compared, the practical intellect, and abstraction
Ostendit intellectum moveri ab intelligibili, nec posse intelligere sine phantasmate. Quod item intellectus practicus et speculativus in anima non sunt realiter distincti, sed ratione tantum, probat; quo pacto demum ad abstractorum cognitionem se habeat exponit
Sense and intellect compared, the practical intellect, and abstraction
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Videtur autem sensibile ex potentia existente sensitivo actu agens: non enim patitur neque alteratur.
And it appears that the active sense-object brings the sense power from a state of potency to one of act; for it is not acted upon or altered.
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Unde alia haec species motus: motus enim imperfecti actus, simpliciter autem actus alter, qui perfecti.
Hence it is a distinct species of motion. For movement is the actuality of the incomplete; whereas this act is simply different, as being of the complete.
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Sentire quidem igitur simile est ipsi dicere solum et intelligere; cum autem delectabile aut triste ut affirmans aut negans, persequitur aut fugit. Et est delectari et tristari agere sensitiva medietate ad bonum aut malum in quantum talia. Et fuga autem et appetitus hoc, quae secundum actum. Et non alterum appetitivum et fugitivum neque ab invicem neque a sensitivo, sed esse aliud est.
Sensation, therefore, is like mere uttering and understanding; but, given a pleasant or painful object, the soul pursues or avoids as though affirming or denying. Feeling pleasure and pain are acts done by the sensitive power as a mean in relation to the good or the bad as such; and the avoidance and appetite of a thing are things in act. And the powers of appetite and avoidance are not distinct from each other, nor distinct from the sensitive power; although in being they differ.
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Intellectivae autem animae phantasmata ut sensibilia sunt; cum autem bonum aut malum affirmat aut negat, et fugit aut persequitur; propter quod nequaquam sine phantasmatae intelligit anima.
Now, phantasms are to the intellectual soul as sense-objects. But when it affirms or denies goodness or badness, it pursues or avoids. Hence the soul never understands without a phantasm.
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Sicut enim aer pupillam huiusmodi fecit, ipsa autem alterum, et auditus similiter, sed ultimum unum et una medietas, esse autem ipsi plura.
For just as air itself affects the pupil in some way, and this in turn affects something else, and hearing does something similar, the last is one thing, a single mean whose being, however, is manifold.
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Quo autem discernit quo differt dulce et calidum, dictum est quidem et prius, dicendum autem et nunc:
But how it discerns the sweet as different from the hot has been stated already, but it should be said again now.
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est enim aliquid unum, sic autem et terminus (et haec in proportionali aut numero) ens unum habet ad utrumque sicut illa ad invicem. Quo enim differt non homogenea iudicare aut contraria, ut album et nigrum? Sit igitur sicut A album ad B nigrum, C ad D sicut illa ad invicem; quare et permutatim. Si igitur CD uni sint existentia, sic habebunt sicut et AB, idem quidem, esse autem non idem, et illud similiter. Eadem autem ratio est et si A quidem dulce sit, B vero album.
For it is something one, but as a terminus; these too are according to proportion or number, and being one, it is related to distinct objects as they are to one another. For what difference indeed does it make whether it judges non-homogeneous things or contraries, like black and white? Thus, as A (white) is to B (black) so is C to D; hence, also, alternating the proportions. If, then, C and D pertain to one thing, they are to each other as A and B, the same though not the same in being; so too is the aforesaid. The same relation holds if A is the sweet and B the white.
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Species quidem igitur intellectivum in phantasmatibus intelligit, et sicut in illis determinatum est ipsi imitabile et fugiendum, et extra sensum cum in phantasmatibus fuerit, movetur. Ut sentiens quod fugiendum est quia ignis, communi cognoscit, videns quod movetur, quoniam inpugnans.
The intellectual power, therefore, understands species in phantasms. And as in them the pursuable and what is to be avoided is determined for it, so too is it moved when these are in the phantasms, apart from sensation. For instance, when one senses that something should be fled, because he senses a fire, he knows by something common; seeing it move, he knows a battle is occurring.
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Aliquando autem quae sunt in anima phantasmatibus aut intellectibus, tanquam videns ratiocinatur et deliberat futura ad presentia, et, cum dixerit ut ibi laetum aut tristae, hic fugit aut imitatur.
Sometimes, however, by means of the phantasms or concepts in the soul, someone reasons and deliberates, as if seeing something, and deliberates on future matters in relation to present matters; and when one has said that the pleasing or the disagreeable is present, then one pursues or avoids it as before.
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Et omnino in actione et quod sine actione verum et falsum in eodem genere est bono et malo. Sed in eo quod simpliciter differt et quodam.
And generally, both in practical action and apart from such action, truth and falsehood are in the same genus as good and evil. But they differ in terms of what is simply speaking so and what is so in a certain respect.
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Abstractione autem dicta intelligit sicut si simum secundum quod simum non separatae, in quantum autem curvum si aliquod intellexit actu, sine carne utique intellexit in qua curvum,
Now, one understands by abstraction, so-called; as one might understand the snub as snub, yet not as separated; but he understands it as curved, if he has actually understood anything; he has certainly understood the curve without the flesh in which it exists.
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sic mathematica non separata tanquam si separata sint intelligit cum intelligat illud. Omnino autem intellectus est, qui secundum actum, res.
Thus, in understanding mathematical objects, the intellect understands things not separated as if separated. And in general, the intellect in the act of understanding is the reality.
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Utrum autem contingat aliquod separatorum intelligere ipsum existentem non separatum a magnitudine, aut non, considerandum posterius.
Whether it is possible for an intellect that is not separated from magnitude to understand anything of things separated from magnitude or no, is to be considered later.
765. Videtur autem sensibile etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de intellectu secundum se, hic determinat de intellectu per comparationem ad sensum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
765. And it appears that the active sense-object (431a4). After the Philosopher has treated the intellect in itself, he treats the intellect as compared with the senses. And regarding this he does two things:
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primo ostendit qualis sit motus sensus;
first, he explains the sort of movement that sensation is;
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secundo, assimilat motum intellectus motui sensus, ibi: sentire quidem igitur etc.
second, he shows how this movement resembles the motion of the intellect, at sensation, therefore (431a8; [767]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod sensibile videtur esse faciens in actu partem sensitivam ex eo quod erat in potentia: non enim sic agit sensibile in sensum sicut contrarium in suum contrarium ut aliquid ab eo abiiciat transmutando et alterando ipsum,
On the former point, he observes that the sense-object appears to make the sensitive part be in act from being in potency. For the sense-object does not act on the sense as a contrary on its contrary, such that, when transforming and altering it, it had to remove something from it.
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sed solum reducit eum de potentia in actum; et hoc est quod subdit quod sensitivum neque patitur neque alteratur a sensibili, passione et alteratione proprie accepta, secundum scilicet quod est a contrario in contrarium.
Rather, it only reduces it from potency to act; so he adds that sensitivity is not acted upon or altered by the sense-object, taking “passion” and “alteration” properly, that is, insofar as this occurs from one contrary to another contrary.
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766. Et quia motus qui est in rebus corporalibus, de quo determinatum est in libro Physicorum, est de contrario in contrarium, manifestum est quod sentire, si dicatur motus, est alia species motus ab ea de qua determinatum est in libro Physicorum: ille enim motus est actus existentis in potentia, quia videlicet recedens ab uno contrario quamdiu movetur non attingit alterum contrarium quod est terminus motus, sed est in potentia ad ipsum, et quia omne quod est in potentia inquantum huiusmodi est imperfectum, ideo ille motus est actus imperfecti; sed iste motus est actus perfecti (est enim operatio sensus iam facti in actu per suam speciem, non enim sentire convenit sensui nisi in actu existenti), et ideo est motus simpliciter alter a motu physico. Et huiusmodi motus dicitur proprie operatio, ut sentire, intelligere et velle, et secundum hunc motum anima movet seipsam secundum Platonem, inquantum cognoscit et amat seipsam.
766. Since, as he shows in the Physics, the motion that is in bodily things goes from contrary to contrary, it is clear that if we call sensing a motion, we mean a distinct species of motion from the one defined in the Physics.1 For that motion is the actuality of a thing existing in potency; for while the thing is losing one contrary, and so long as it is moving, it does not reach the other contrary, which is the terminus of the motion; rather, it is still in potency to it. And because everything that is in potency as such is incomplete, that movement is the actuality of the incomplete, whereas this motion is the actuality of what is complete—for the activity of a sense power is brought into act through its own species, for sensing belongs to the sense only by being in act. So their movement is simply different from physical movement. It is this movement also which, together with understanding and willing, is properly called “activity”; and this also is what Plato referred to when he said that the soul moves itself through knowing and loving itself.
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767. Deinde cum dicit: sentire quidem igitur, assimilat motum intellectus motui sensus. Et circa hoc duo facit:
767. Next, at sensation, therefore (431a8), he likens the intellect’s movement to that of the senses. And regarding this, he does two things:
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primo ostendit qualiter procedit motus in sensu;
first, he shows how the senses move;
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secundo ostendit quod similiter procedit in intellectu, ibi: intellectivae autem animae.
second, at now, phantasms (431a14; [770]), he shows how a similar movement takes place in the intellect.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, cum sensibile reducat in actum sensitivum sine passione et alteratione, sicut de intellectu supra dictum est, manifestum est ex dictis quod ipsum sentire est simile ei quod est intelligere, ita tamen quod quando est solum sentire, id est apprehendere et iudicare secundum sensum, hoc est simile ei quod est solum dicere et intelligere, quando scilicet intellectus tantum iudicat aliquid et apprehendit, quod est dicere quod simplex apprehensio et iudicium sensus assimilatur speculationi intellectus; sed quando sensus sentit aliquid delectabile aut triste quasi affirmans aut negans id quod sensu percipitur esse delectabile aut triste, tunc prosequitur per appetitum, id est desiderat, aut fugit (et dicit signanter: ut affirmans aut negans, quia formare affirmationem et negationem est proprium intellectus, ut supra dictum est, sed sensus facit aliquid simile huic quando apprehendit aliquid ut delectabile vel triste).
As regards the former point, he says that, since the sensible object actualizes our sensitivity without a passion or alteration (as was said of the intellect earlier), it is clear that sensation is like when one understands—yet such that when one is merely sensing, that is, apprehending and judging according to a sense, this is like mere uttering and understanding, that is, when the intellect only judges and apprehends something.1 This is to say that the simple apprehension and judgment of sensation is like the speculation of the intellect, but when the senses sense something pleasant or painful as if affirming or denying what is perceived by the sense is pleasant or painful, then it seeks it by appetite (that is, it desires it) or avoids it. And note the phrase, as though affirming or denying; for to form affirmation and denial is something proper to the intellect (as was said earlier), but the senses do something similar to this when they apprehend something as pleasant or painful.2
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768. Et ut sciatur quid sit delectari et tristari, subiungit quod delectari et tristari est agere sensitiva medietate, id est actio quaedam sensitivae virtutis, quae dicitur medietas inquantum sensus communis comparatur ad sensus proprios ut quoddam medium sicut centrum comparatur ad lineas terminatas ad ipsum; non autem omnis actio sensitivae partis est delectare vel tristari, sed quae est respectu boni vel mali inquantum huiusmodi: nam bonum sensus, quod scilicet est ei conveniens, causat delectationem, malum autem, quod est repugnans et nocivum, causat tristitiam. Et ex hoc quod est tristari vel delectari sequuntur fuga et appetitus, id est desiderium, quae sunt secundum actum.
768. And to show what pleasure and pain are, he observes further that feeling pleasure and pain are acts done by the sensitive power as a mean; that is to say, it is a certain act of the sensitive power, which is called a “mean” insofar as the common sense is related to the proper senses as a certain middle, like the center of a circle in relation to lines drawn from the circumference. But not every act of the sensitive part is a feeling of pleasure or pain, but only what is relative to the good and the bad as such. For the good of a sense—that is, what is congruent with it—causes pleasure; while what is bad, that is, repugnant and harmful to it, causes pain. And pain and pleasure are followed, respectively, by avoidance and appetite (that is, desire), things in act.
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769. Patet igitur quod motus sensibilis in sensum procedit quasi triplici gradu:
769. Thus, it is clear that the movement of the sense-object to sense passes through three stages, as it were.
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nam primo apprehenditur ipsum sensibile ut conveniens vel nocivum;
First, the sense-object itself is apprehended as congruent or harmful;
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secundo ex hoc sequitur delectatio vel tristitia;
second, pleasure or pain follows this;
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tertio autem sequitur desiderium vel fuga.
third, desire or avoidance follows.
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Et quamvis appetere vel fugere vel sentire sint diversi actus, tamen principium eorum est idem subiecto, sed ratione differt;
And although having an appetite, avoiding, and sensing are different acts, still their principle is the same in subject, though it differs in account.
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et hoc est quod subiungit quod appetitivum et fugitivum, id est pars animae quae fugit et desiderat, non sunt alterae subiecto neque ab invicem neque a parte sensitiva, sed esse aliud est, id est differunt ratione. Et hoc dicit contra Platonem, qui ponebat in alia parte corporis organum appetitivi et in alia organum sensitivi.
This is what he means by adding that the powers of appetite and avoidance—that is, that part of the soul which desires or avoids—are not different in subject, neither from each other nor from the sensitive part; although in being they differ, that is, are different in account. He says this against Plato, who maintained that desire and sensation had distinct organs in different parts of the body.
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770. Deinde cum dicit: intellectivae autem animae, assimilat processum motus in intellectu ad id quod dictum est circa sensum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
770. Next, at now, phantasms (431a14), he compares the intellect’s movement to the process of sense-knowledge as he has described it. And he does two things here.
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primo ostendit quomodo intellectus se habet circa sensibilia;
First, he shows how the intellect is related to sense-objects.
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secundo quomodo se habet circa ea quae sunt a sensibilibus separata, ibi: abstractione autem dicta etc.
Second, at now, one understands by abstraction (431b12; [781]), he shows how it is related to things separated from the sense-objects.
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Circa primum duo facit:
The first divides into two parts:
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primo ostendit quomodo intellectus se habet circa sensibilia in agendis;
first, he gives an explanation of the way the intellect is related to sense-objects in things that are to be done;
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secundo comparat intellectum activum ad speculativum, ibi: et omnino in actione.
second, at and generally, both in practical action (431b10; [779]), he offers a comparison of the practical and speculative intellects.
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Circa primum duo facit:
And with regard to the former point he does two things:
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primo assimilat processum intellectus processui sensus;
first, he states the resemblance between the progression of the intellect and the progression of the senses;
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secundo manifestat similitudinem, ibi: sicut enim aer pupillam etc.
second, at for just as air itself affects the pupil (431a17; [773]), he illustrates this resemblance.
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Dicit ergo primo quod phantasmata se habent ad intellectivam partem animae sicut sensibilia ad sensum, unde sicut sensus movetur a sensibilibus, ita intellectus a phantasmatibus, et sicut, cum sensus apprehendit aliquid ut delectabile vel triste, prosequitur aut fugit, ita cum intellectus apprehendit aliquid affirmans aut negans esse bonum aut malum, fugit aut prosequitur.
First, then, he observes that phantasms are to the intellectual part of the soul as sense-objects to the senses; this is why, as the sense is moved by sensible things, so is the intellect by phantasms. And just as when the sense apprehends something as pleasant or painful, it seeks or avoids it, so also the intellect, when the intellect apprehends something as affirming or denying its goodness or badness, it avoids or pursues it.
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771. Ex ipso autem modo loquendi Aristotelis, attendenda est duplex differentia inter sensum et intellectum, quia in sensu erant tria:
771. But note that Aristotle’s use of terms here suggests a twofold difference between intellect and senses, because in the sense there were three things.
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nam ex apprehensione boni vel mali, non statim sequebatur desiderium vel fuga sicut hic circa intellectum, sed sequebatur delectatio vel tristitia et ex hoc ulterius desiderium et fuga; cuius ratio est quia, sicut sensus non apprehendit bonum universale, ita appetitus sensitivae partis non movetur a bono vel malo universali, sed a quodam determinato bono quod est delectabile secundum sensum et a quodam determinato malo quod est contristans sensum, in parte autem intellectiva est apprehensio boni vel mali universalis; unde et appetitus intellectivae partis movetur statim ex bono vel malo apprehenso;
For in the first place, when the senses apprehend their good and evil, this awareness is not immediately succeeded by desire or avoidance (as is the case here with the intellect), but by pleasure and pain, and from this there further follows desire and avoidance. The reason is that as the senses do not apprehend the universal good, so appetite of the sensitive part is not moved by the universal good or evil, but by a certain determinate good, the pleasant in sensation, and by a certain determinate evil, the painful to sense. In the intellectual part, on the contrary, there is an apprehension of the universal good or evil, so the appetite of the intellectual part is also moved immediately by the good or evil apprehended.
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772. secunda differentia est quod de intellectu dicit simpliciter quod affirmat vel negat, sed de sensu quod quasi affirmat vel negat, cuius ratio ex dictis patet. Ex hoc autem quod dixerat concludit ulterius quod, si phantasmata se habent ad animam intellectivam sicut sensibile ad sensum, sicut sensus non potest sentire sine sensibili, ita anima non potest intelligere sine phantasmate.
772. The other difference appears in Aristotle’s observing that the intellect affirms or denies, simply speaking, whereas of the senses he only says that they, as it were, affirm or deny. The reason for this has already been given. And from what has been said he draws the further conclusion that if intellect is related to phantasms as the senses to their object, then just as the senses cannot sense without a sense-object, so the soul cannot understand without a phantasm.
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773. Deinde cum dicit: sicut enim aer etc., manifestat similitudinem positam.
773. Then, where he says, for just as air (431a17), he explains the resemblance still further:
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Et primo quantum ad hoc quod dixit quod intellectivae animae phantasmata sunt ut sensibilia;
first, as regards what he said before, that phantasms are to the intellectual soul as sense-objects (431a14);
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secundo quantum ad hoc quod dixit quod cum bonum aut malum affirmat aut negat, fugit aut prosequitur, ibi: species quidem igitur etc.
and second, at the intellectual power, therefore (431b2; [777]), he said that when it affirms or denies goodness or badness, it pursues or avoids.
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Dicit ergo primo quod aer immutatus a colore facit pupillam huiusmodi, id est facit eam aliqualem, imprimens in eam speciem coloris, et ipsa, scilicet pupilla sic immutata, immutat alterum, scilicet sensum communem, et similiter auditus immutatus ab aere immutat sensum communem; et licet sensus exteriores sint plures, tamen ultimum, ad quod terminantur immutationes horum sensuum, est unum et est quasi medietas una inter omnes sensus, sicut centrum ad quod terminantur omnes lineae quasi ad unum medium;
First, then, he remarks that color-affected air, when modified by color, affects the pupil in some way, that is, it makes it of a certain quality, impressing on it the species of the color, and this then, that is, the pupil so modified, modifies something else, that is, the common sense. Similarly our hearing, itself modified by the air, modifies the common sense. And though there are several exterior senses, their modifications are terminated at one last, and this is a certain single mean between all the senses, like a center upon which lines from a circumference all converge.
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774. et quamvis sit unum subiecto istud medium omnium sensuum, tamen esse ipsi est plura, id est ratio ipsius diversificatur secundum quod ad diversos sensus comparatur. Et hoc est quo discernit anima in quo differat dulce et calidum, de quo dictum est prius cum de ipso secundum se agebatur, et nunc etiam dicendum est de ipso per comparationem ad intellectum, quia est aliquid unum respectu omnium sensibilium sicut, inquam, terminus (hoc est quod diximus); sic et intellectus est terminus omnium phantasmatum
774. And while this midpoint is one in subject, still its being is manifold, that is to say, its account varies insofar as it is related to the different senses. This is the power by which the soul discerns the sweet as different from the hot, which has been stated already when we were considering it in itself; but it should be said again now, in relation to the intellect, since it is something one relative to all the sense-objects as (he says) terminus (this is what we have said); and so too is the intellect as the terminus of all the phantasms.1
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(et sicut ex parte illa erant plura quae diiudicabantur ab uno, ita et haec ex parte intellectus se habent in quodam proportionali, id est quod proportionaliter respondet uni diiudicanti circa sensibilia, aut etiam est similitudo quantum ad numerum diiudicatorum), iste, inquam, terminus, qui est intellectus, ens unum se habet ad utrumque inter quae discernit sicut illa se habebant ad invicem, id est sicut se habebat unus sensus communis ad diversa sensibilia inter quae discernebat.
And as in the one case those many objects were said to be discerned by one thing, so on the side of the intellect these also stand in a certain proportion; that is, the intellect is what corresponds proportionally to that one judge of sense-objects. Or again, there is a likeness as regards the number of things judged; this terminus, he says, which is the intellect, is one being related to distinct objects whose distinction it discerns as they are to one another, that is, just as the single common sense to the different sense-objects whose differences it discerns.
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775. Et non differt si accipiamus causa exempli vel non homogenea, id est diversa sensibilia non unius generis sicut album quod est in genere coloris et dulce quod est in genere saporis inter quae sensus communis discernit, aut si accipiamus contraria, ut album et nigrum quae sunt unius generis, quia inter utrumque discernit sensus communis.
775. It makes no difference whether we take as example either the non-homogeneous, that is, different sensibles that do not belong to one genus—for instance, white, which is in the genus of color, and sweet, which is in the genus of flavor—as the things between which the common sense discerns; or we take contraries that belong to one same genus, like black and white. For the common sense discriminates between both.
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776. Accipiamus ergo A loco albi et B loco nigri, ut sic se habeat A album ad B nigrum sicut C ad D, id est sicut phantasma albi ad phantasma nigri; quare et secundum permutatam proportionum A se habet ad C sicut B ad D, id est album ad phantasma albi sicut nigrum ad phantasma nigri; et sic ita se habet intellectus ad C et D, scilicet ad phantasmata albi et nigri, sicut se habet sensus ad A et B, id est ad album et nigrum. Si igitur CD, id est phantasmata albi et nigri, sunt existentia uni, id est diiudicantur ab uno intellectu, sic se habebunt sicut et AB, id est album et nigrum, quae iudicabantur ab uno sensu, ita quod sensus diiudicans haec duo erat unum subiecto, differens ratione, ita erit de intellectu. Et eadem ratio est si accipiamus non homogenea, ut scilicet A sit dulce et B sit album.
776. Let us put A for white and B for black; so that, as A (white) is to B (black), so is C to D, the latter standing for the phantasms of white and black. Hence, also, alternating the proportions, A is to C as B to D: that is, white is to the phantasm of white as black to the phantasm of black; and as the intellect is to C and D, the phantasms of white and black, so is the sense to A and B, the white and the black. If, then, C and D, the phantasms of white and black, pertain to one thing, that is, they are judged by one intellect, so they are to each other as A and B, namely white and black, which are judged by one sense; so that, just as the sense that discriminates these two was one in subject but twofold in its account, so too will be the intellect. The same relation holds valid if we take non-homogeneous objects—taking, for instance, A as the sweet and B the white.
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777. Deinde cum dicit: species quidem igitur, manifestat quod supra dixerat quod, cum intellectus affirmat vel negat bonum aut malum, fugit aut prosequitur, concludens ex praedictis quod pars animae intellectiva intelligit species in phantasmatibus, et sicut intellectui determinatur aliquid imitabile et fugiendum in illis, id est in sensibilibus cum praesentia fuerint, ita et movetur ad imitandum et fugiendum cum fuerint in phantasmatibus extra sensum, id est cum repraesentantur phantasmata in absentia sensibilium.
777. Next, at the intellectual power (431b2), he explains what he said above, that in affirming or denying good or evil, the intellect avoids or pursues; and so he concludes that the intellectual part of the soul understands species in the phantasms. And as something is determined for the intellect as pursuable and to be avoided as something in them, that is, in the sense-objects when present, so too, it is moved to pursuing and fleeing when these are in the phantasms, apart from sensation, that is, when the phantasms are represented in the absence of the sensible objects.
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778. Et ponit exemplum de utroque. Et primo quando movetur ad praesentiam sensibilium, sicut homo sentiens aliquid quod fugiendum est, id est aliquod terribile, puta fremitum aliquem, sicut cum videt quia est ignis accensus in civitate, videns ignem moveri, cognoscit communi, id est aliqua potentia communi diiudicativa, vel communi, id est ab eo quod communiter accidere solet, cognoscit, inquam, quoniam sunt praelia, vel quoniam est aliquid impugnans, et sic movetur aliquando intellectus ad fugiendum vel imitandum ex sensibili praesente.
778. And he gives examples of each. First, when it is moved at the presence of sense-objects—as when a man senses that something should be fled, that is, something frightening, for example, some roaring, as when he sees that there is a fire raging in the city; seeing the flames in motion, he knows something by something common—that is, by some common power of judging, or by some common thing in the sense of what commonly happens—he knows, I say, that battles are occurring or some struggle is occurring; and thus, the intellect is moved sometimes to pursue or flee by the sensible objects that are present.
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Aliquando autem ex phantasmatibus aut intellectibus quae sunt in anima ratiocinatur et deliberat futura ad praesentia tamquam si actu videret, et, cum iudicat aliquid esse laetum vel triste, fugit hic aut imitatur ut ibi, id est sicut quando movebatur a sensibili praesenti.
Sometimes, however, due to phantasms or concepts in the soul, someone reasons and deliberates on future matters in relation to present matters, as if one were actually seeing them, and when one judges something is pleasing or disagreeable, one pursues or avoids it as before, that is, just as when one was moved by a present sense-object.
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779. Deinde cum dicit: et omnino in actione, comparat cognitionem intellectus practici et speculativi, dicens quod verum et falsum, id est vera et falsa cognitio, intellectus in actione, id est secundum quod pertinet ad intellectum practicum, et sine actione, id est secundum quod pertinet ad intellectum speculativum, est in eodem genere, sive illud genus sit bonum sive malum. Quod potest dupliciter intelligi:
779. Next, at and generally (431b10), he compares the intellect’s speculative and practical knowledge. Truth and falsehood, he says, that is, true and false knowing, of the intellect in practical action (that is, insofar as the knowledge pertains to the practical intellect) and apart from such action (that is, insofar as it pertains to the speculative intellect) are in the same genus, that is, that genus is the good or evil. This can be taken in two ways:
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uno modo sic quod res intellecta vel practice vel speculative quandoque est bona quandoque est mala nec diversificatur propter hoc genus rei quod consideratur speculative vel practice;
in one way, that the reality understood, either speculatively or practically, is sometimes good, sometimes bad, and by being considered speculatively or practically the thing’s genus is not distinguished on account of this;
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alio modo potest intelligi quod ipsa cognitio vera est quoddam bonum intellectus sive speculativi sive practici et ipsa cognitio falsa est quoddam malum intellectus sive speculativi sive practici.
or in another way, that true knowledge itself is a certain good of the intellect, whether it be speculative or practical; whereas false knowledge is a certain evil for the intellect, whether speculative or practical.
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780. Non ergo intendit comparare verum et falsum bono et malo secundum convenientiam generis, sed verum et falsum quod est in actione vero et falso quod est sine actione. Et hoc patet ex differentia quam subdit, dicens quod differt, scilicet quod est in actione et quod est sine actione, in eo quod simpliciter et quodam: nam intellectus speculativus considerat aliquod verum vel falsum in universali, quod est considerare simpliciter, intellectus autem practicus applicando ad particulare operabile, quia operatio in particularibus est.
780. Thus, he does not intend to relate, according to an agreement of genus, truth and falsehood to good and evil, but truth and falsehood in action to truth and falsehood without action. This is clear from the difference which he adds, saying that they differ, namely, what is in-action and what is not-in-action, in terms of what is simply speaking so and what is so in a certain respect. For the speculative intellect considers something true or false universally, which is to consider it simply speaking, whereas the practical intellect does this by making an application to the particular thing to be done; for doing is always in the particular.
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781. Deinde cum dicit: abstractione autem, quia dixerat philosophus quod nequaquam sine phantasmate intelligit anima, phantasmata autem a sensu accipiuntur, vult ostendere quomodo intellectus noster intelligit ea quae sunt a sensibus separata. Et circa hoc duo facit:
781. Then, at now, one understands (431b12), having already said that the soul never understands without a phantasm, and that phantasms are taken from sensation, the Philosopher begins to explain how our intellect understands things that are separated from the senses. Here he proceeds in two stages:
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primo ostendit quomodo intelligat mathematica, quae a materia sensibili abstrahuntur;
first, he explains how it understands mathematical objects, which are abstracted from sensible matter;
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secundo inquirit utrum intelligat ea quae sunt secundum esse a materia separata, ibi: utrum autem contingat.
and second, he inquires whether we understand things that are according to their own being separated from matter, at whether it is possible (431b17; [785]).
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Circa primum considerandum est quod eorum quae sunt in rebus coniuncta contingit unum sine altero intelligi et vere, dummodo unum eorum non sit in ratione alterius: si enim Socrates sit musicus et albus, possum intelligere albedinem nihil intelligendo de musica; non autem possum intelligere hominem nihil intelligendo de animali, quia animal est in ratione hominis; sic ergo separando secundum intellectum quae sunt secundum rem coniuncta modo praedicto, non contingit falsitas.
As regards the first point, note that of things joined in reality the intellect may think, and think truly, of one without the other, provided that the account of the one is not included in the account of the other. If Socrates is both white and musical, his whiteness can be understood without regard to his musical character; but I cannot understand “man” if I do not understand “animal,” for the account of man includes animal. Thus, it is possible to separate in the intellect things that are conjoined in reality in this way, and yet not fall into error.
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782. Si autem intellectus separaret intelligens ea quae sunt coniuncta esse separata, esset falsus, ut puta si in praedicto exemplo diceretur: musicus non est albus. Ea ergo quae sunt in sensibilibus abstrahit intellectus, non quidem intelligens ea esse separata, sed separatim vel seorsum ea intelligens.
782. But if the intellect were to separate them, understanding things that are conjoined as being separate, then the intellect would be false—as, to take our former example, if it were to assert that the musical person is not white. The intellect, then, abstracts things that exist within sense-objects, not in fact understanding them to be separate, but understanding them separately or distinctly.
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Et hoc est quod dicit quod intellectus intelligit ea quae sunt dicta per abstractionem, scilicet mathematica, hoc modo sicut dum intelligit simum secundum quod est simum non intelligit separate, id est seorsum, simum a materia sensibili, quia materia sensibilis, scilicet nasus, cadit in definitione simi;
And he says this, that the intellect understands (431b12) things that exist by abstraction, so-called (that is, the mathematical objects), in the way it understands the snub as snub, understanding it yet not as separated, that is, the snub in separation from sensible matter, since its sensible matter, the nose, is included in the definition of a snub.
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783. si autem intellectus intelligit aliquid in actu inquantum est curvum, sine carne intellexit in qua est curvum, non quidem ita quod intelligat curvum esse sine carne, sed quia intellexit curvum non intelligendo carnem, et hoc ideo quia caro non ponitur in definitione curvi; et sic intellectus intelligit omnia mathematica separate, tamquam si essent separata, quamvis non sint separata secundum esse
783. But if the intellect understands actually anything as curved, it has understood the curve without the flesh in which the curve exists; not such that it understands the curved to exist without the flesh, but because it understands curved without understanding flesh, because flesh does not enter into the definition of a curve. And thus the intellect understands all mathematical objects separately—as if they were separated, although they are not separated in being.
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784. (non autem sic intelligit naturalia, quia in definitione naturalium ponitur materia sensibilis, non autem in definitione mathematicorum; abstrahit tamen circa naturalia intellectus universale a particulari simili modo, inquantum intelligit naturam speciei sine principiis individuantibus, quae non cadunt in definitione speciei). Et omnino intellectus in actu est res intellectae, quia sicut res in sui ratione habent materiam vel non habent, sic ab intellectu percipiuntur. Et quia hunc modum abstractionis Plato non consideravit, coactus fuit ponere mathematica et species separatas, loco cuius ad praedictam abstractionem faciendam Aristoteles posuit intellectum agentem.
784. But we do not understand natural things in this way; for in their definition sensible matter is included, unlike in the definition of mathematical object. Yet regarding natural things the intellect abstracts the universal from the particular in a similar way, insofar as it understands the nature of the species without individuating principles, which do not enter into the definition of the species. And in general, the intellect in act is the reality understood; for just as the reality in its own account has or does not have matter, so too, it is perceived by the intellect. And because Plato overlooked this mode of abstraction, he was forced to posit separated mathematical objects and species, in the place of which, to accomplish this abstraction, he asserted that there is an agent intellect.
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785. Deinde cum dicit: utrum autem contingat, movet quaestionem de his quae sunt separata a materia secundum esse, dicens quod posterius considerandum erit utrum contingat intellectum nostrum non separatum a magnitudine, id est a corpore, intelligere aliquod separatorum, id est aliquam substantiam separatam.
785. Next, at whether it is possible (431b17), he poses a question about things that are separated from matter in their being, saying that it is to be considered later whether it is possible for our intellect, not having been separated from magnitude (that is, from the body), to understand anything of the things separated, that is, any separated substance.
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Haec enim quaestio hic determinari non potuit, quia nondum erat manifestum esse aliquas substantias separatas nec quae vel quales sint; unde haec quaestio ad metaphysicum pertinet, non tamen invenitur ab Aristotele soluta, quia complementum illius scientiae nondum ad nos pervenit vel quia nondum est totus liber translatus vel forte quia praeoccupatus morte non complevit.
For he could not determine this question, since it was not yet evident that there are such separated substances, nor what things they are and what sort of thing they are. This is why this is a question that pertains to metaphysics. Yet we do not find Aristotle’s solution of this problem, as the completion of that science has not yet come down to us, either because the entire book is not yet translated or possibly because he died before he could complete it.1
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786. Considerandum tamen est quod intellectus hic dicit non separatum a corpore inquantum est potentia quaedam animae, quae est actus corporis; supra tamen dixit ipsum a corpore separatum, quia non habet aliquod organum deputatum suae operationi.
786. We should note, however, that when he speaks of the intellect here as not separated from the body he refers to the fact that it is one of the powers of the soul, which is the actuality of the body; whereas earlier he said the intellect is separated from the body, because it does not have any organ devoted to its activity.1
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L. 7 (Γ.8, 431b20–432a14)Recapitulation of the intellect, sense, and imagination
Intellectum vel animam esse omnia non quidem per compositionem, ut volebant antiqui, sed per apprehensionem, probat: quia item non contingat fieri intellectionem absque sensu ostendit
Recapitulation of the intellect, sense, and imagination
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Nunc autem de anima dicta recapitulantes, dicamus iterum quod omnia ea quae sunt quodam modo est anima: aut enim sensibilia quae sunt aut intelligibilia, est autem scientia quidem scibilia quodam modo, sensus autem sensibilia. Qualiter autem hoc sit, oportet inquirere: secatur igitur scientia et sensus in res, quae quidem potentia est in ea quae sunt potentia, quae vero actu in ea quae sunt actu; animae autem sensitivum et quod scire potest potentia haec sunt, hoc quidem scibile, illud vero sensibile.
Now, recapitulating what we have said about the soul, let us repeat that the soul is in a way all things that exist; for things are either sensible or intelligible, and knowledge is in some way the things knowable, and sensation is the things sensible. But how this is so we must inquire. For knowledge and sensation are divided into the realities: the potential answers to things that exist in potency, the actual to things that exist in act. In the soul, the sensitive power and that which can know are these things in potency: the latter, the knowable; the former, the sensible.
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Necesse est autem aut ipsa aut species esse. Ipsa quidem igitur non sunt: non enim lapis in anima est, sed species. Quare anima sicut manus est: manus enim organum organorum, et intellectus species specierum et sensus species sensibilium.
Now, they must be either the things themselves or their species. But they are certainly not, then, the things themselves, for a stone is not in the soul, but its species is. Thus the soul is like a hand: for the hand is the instrument of instruments, and the intellect is the species of species, and sense is the species of sensible things.
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Quoniam autem neque res nulla est praeter magnitudines, sicut videntur sensibilia separata, in speciebus sensibilibus intelligibilia sunt, et quae abstractione dicuntur et quaecumque sensibilium habitus et passiones. Et ob hoc neque non sentiens nihil, nihil utique addiscet neque intelliget, sed cum speculetur, necesse simul phantasma aliquod speculari; phantasmata autem sicut sensibilia sunt praeter quod sunt sine materia.
But since there are no real things apart from magnitudes, as sensible objects are seen to be separate, then within the sensible species are the intelligible objects, both the things that are spoken of by abstraction and whatever qualities and habits belong to sensible things. And on this account, what does not sense neither learns nor understands anything. Rather, when one contemplates, he must at the same time contemplate some phantasm; for the phantasms are as the sense-objects, save that they are without matter.
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Est autem phantasia alterum a dictione et negatione: complexio enim intellectuum est verum aut falsum.
But imagination is other than affirmation and denial: for the true and the false are a combining of concepts.
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Primi autem intellectus quid different ut non phantasmata sint? Aut neque alii phantasmata, sed non sine phantasmatibus.
What difference have the primary concepts that they should not be phantasms? But neither are the others phantasms, though they do not exist without phantasms.
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787. Nunc autem de anima etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de sensu et intellectu, per ea quae de utroque determinata sunt ostendit quid sit de natura animae sentiendum. Et dividitur in partes duas:
787. Now, recapitulating what we have said (431b20). After treating of sense and intellect, through the things he has determined the Philosopher goes on now to manifest what one should think about the nature of the soul. And this is divided into two parts.
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in prima ostendit quod natura animae quodammodo est sicut antiqui credebant et quodammodo aliter;
In the first, he shows that the early philosophers were partly right and partly wrong about the nature of the soul.
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in secunda ostendit dependentiam intellectus a sensu, ibi: quoniam autem neque res.
In the second, he clarifies the intellect’s dependence on the senses, at but since there are no real things (432a3; [791]);
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Circa primum duo facit:
As to the former point, he does two things:
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primo ostendit quod anima quodammodo est omnia, ut antiqui dixerunt;
first, he explains how the soul, as the early philosophers said, is in a way all things;
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secundo ostendit quod aliter est omnia quam illi dixerunt, ibi: necesse est autem.
second, he says how it is not all things in the way they supposed, at now, they must be the things (431b28; ]789]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod nunc recapitulantes ea quae dicta sunt de anima ut ex his propositum ostendamus, dicamus quod anima quodammodo est omnia: omnia enim quae sunt aut sunt sensibilia aut intelligibilia, anima autem est quodammodo et sensibilia et intelligibilia, quia in anima est sensus et intellectus sive scientia, sensus autem quodammodo est ipsa sensibilia et intellectus intelligibilia sive scientia scibilia.
He says, then: now, recapitulating what we have said about the soul, let us repeat that the soul is in a way all things; for all things are either sensible or intelligible, but the soul is in a certain way both the sensible things and the intelligible things, because sense and intellect (or scientific knowledge) are in the soul, whereas sensation is in some way the sensibles themselves, and the intellect, or knowledge, the intelligible things, that is, the scientifically knowable.
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788. Et qualiter hoc sit, oportet inquirere: sensus enim et scientia dividuntur in res, id est dividuntur in actum et potentiam quemadmodum et res, ita tamen quod scientia et sensus quae sunt in potentia se habent ad scibilia et sensibilia quae sunt in potentia, scientia vero et sensus quae sunt in actu ordinantur ad scibilia et sensibilia quae sunt in actu; sed tamen diversimode: nam sensus in actu et scientia vel intellectus in actu sunt scibilia et sensibilia etiam in actu, sed potentia animae sensitiva et id quod scire potest, id est potentia intellectiva, non est ipsum sensibile vel scibile, sed est in potentia ad ipsa, sensitivum quidem ad sensibile, quod autem scire potest ad scibile. Relinquitur igitur quod anima quodammodo sit omnia.
788. But how this is so we must inquire. For sense and knowledge are divided into the realities, that is, they are divided into act and potency in the same way that realities are, but in such a way that potential knowledge and sensation are oriented to the knowable and the sensible that exist in potency, and actual knowledge and sensation are actually ordered to the knowable and sensible that exist in act. But there is a difference between the two relationships. For the sense in act and knowledge or the intellect in act are also the objects they actually sense or understand, the soul’s sensitive power and that which can know, that is, the intellectual power, are not the sensible or knowable thing itself; but rather, they are in potency as regards them, the sensitive as regards the sensible, and what can know as regards the knowable. And thereby it is granted that the soul is “somehow” all things.
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789. Deinde cum dicit: necesse est autem etc., ostendit quod alio modo est omnia quam antiqui ponebant. Et dicit quod, si anima est omnia, necesse est quod vel sit ipsae res sensibiles et scibiles, sicut Empedocles posuit quod terra terram cognoscimus et aqua aquam et sic de aliis, aut quod sit species ipsarum. Non autem anima est ipsae res, sicut illi posuerunt, quia lapis non est in anima, sed species lapidis; et per hunc modum dicitur intellectus in actu esse ipsum intellectum in actu, inquantum species intellecti est species intellectus in actu.
789. Next, at now, they must be (431b28), he shows that it is “all things” in a way other than what the ancients claimed. He says that if the soul is indeed all things, it must either be the sensible and knowable realities themselves, as Empedocles said that we, being earth, know earth, and being water, know water, or it is the species of the things themselves. But the soul is not the realities itself, as they asserted, since a stone is not in the soul, but the stone’s species is; and this enables us to see how intellect in act is said to be the very thing understood in act, insofar as the species of the intellect is the species of the thing actually understood.
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790. Ex quo patet quod anima assimilatur manui: manus enim est organum organorum, quia manus datae sunt homini loco omnium organorum quae data sunt aliis animalibus ad defensionem vel impugnationem vel cooperimentum: omnia enim haec homo sibi manu praeparat;
790. Thus it is clear that the soul resembles the hand. For the hand is the instrument of instruments, for hands are given to man in place of all the organs that are given to other animals for purposes of defense or attack or assistance. For man can provide all these needs for himself with his hands.
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et similiter anima data est homini loco omnium formarum, ut sit homo quodammodo totum ens, inquantum secundum animam est quodammodo omnia, prout eius anima est receptiva omnium formarum; nam intellectus est quaedam forma receptiva omnium formarum intelligibilium et sensus est quaedam forma receptiva omnium formarum sensibilium.
And in a similar way, the soul is given to man as the place of all forms, so that a human being is in a way the whole of being, inasmuch as through his soul is all things, in a way, as his soul is able to receive all forms. For the intellect is a certain form receptive of all intelligible forms, and the sense is a certain form receptive of all sensible forms.
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791. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem neque res etc., quia dixerat quod intellectus est quodammodo intelligibilia sicut sensus est sensibilia, posset aliquis credere quod intellectus non dependeret a sensu, et hoc quidem verum esset si intelligibilia nostri intellectus essent a sensibilibus separata secundum esse, ut Platonici posuerunt; et ideo hic ostendit quod intellectus indiget sensu,
791. Next, at but since there are (432a3), because the doctrine just stated, that intellect is in a way the intelligible objects just as sense is the sensible objects, might lead one to suppose that the intellect did not depend on the sense (as would be the case indeed if the things intelligible to our intellect were separate from sensible things in their being, as the Platonists thought), so he now shows the intellect’s dependence on the senses.
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et postmodum quod intellectus differt a phantasia, quae etiam a sensu dependet, ibi: est autem phantasia.
And afterwards, at but imagination is other (432a10), he shows that it differs, nonetheless, from imagination, which also depends on the senses.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, quia nulla res intellecta a nobis est praeter magnitudines sensibiles, quasi ab eis separata secundum esse, sicut sensibilia videntur ab invicem separata, necesse est quod intelligibilia intellectus nostri sint in speciebus sensibilibus secundum esse, tam illa quae dicuntur per abstractionem, scilicet mathematica, quam naturalia, quae sunt habitus et passiones sensibilium.
First, then, he observes that, since there are no real things that are understood by us except sensible magnitudes, as things separate from them in being, as the sensible objects are seen to be separate from each other, so it is necessary that things intelligible to our intellect exist within the sensible species in their being, both the things said to exist through abstraction, that is, mathematical objects, and natural things, which are the qualities and habits belonging to sensible things.
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Et propter hoc sine sensu non potest aliquid homo addiscere quasi de novo acquirens scientiam neque intelligere quasi utens scientia habita, sed oportet, cum aliquid speculatur in actu, quod simul formet sibi aliquod phantasma; phantasmata autem sunt similitudines sensibilium,
It follows, then, that without some use of the senses, a human being can neither learn, as acquiring new knowledge, nor understand, as though using knowledge that was already acquired. Rather, when the intellect actually contemplates anything, it must at the same time form for itself some phantasm; for phantasms are likenesses of sensible things.
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792. sed in hoc differunt ab eis quod sunt praeter materiam: nam sensus est susceptivus specierum sine materia, ut supra dictum est, phantasia autem est motus a sensu secundum actum.
792. But they differ from them in their being outside matter. For as we have shown, the sense is receptive of the species without matter; and imagination is a movement produced by sensation in act.1
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Patet autem ex hoc falsum esse quod Avicenna dicit quod intellectus non indiget sensu postquam acquisivit scientiam; manifestum est enim quod, etiam postquam aliquis habet habitum scientiae, necesse est ad hoc quod speculetur quod utatur phantasmate; et propter hoc per laesionem organi impeditur usus scientiae iam acquisitae.
It will be clear now that Avicenna erred in saying that once the intellect has acquired knowledge, it no longer needs the senses. For it is manifest that even after someone has the habit of knowledge, in order to contemplate it, one must use a phantasm; and any injury to the organ will impede our using the knowledge we already have.
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793. Deinde cum dicit: est autem phantasia, ostendit differentiam inter phantasiam et intellectum.
793. Then, at but imagination is other (432a10), he distinguishes between intellect and imagination.
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Et primo quantum ad operationem intellectus quae est compositio et divisio, dicens quod phantasia alterum est ab affirmatione et negatione intellectus, quia in complexione intellectuum iam est verum et falsum, quod non est in phantasia: nam cognoscere verum et falsum est solius intellectus.
First, with respect to the activity of the intellect that is composing and dividing, he says that imagining is other than the intellect’s affirmation and denial; for in the bringing together of concepts there is immediately the true and the false, which is not the case with imagining. For knowing truth and falsehood belong to the intellect alone.
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794. Secundo ibi: primi autem intellectus, inquirit in quo differunt primi intellectus, id est intelligentiae indivisibilium, quod non sint phantasmata. Et respondet quod non sunt sine phantasmatibus, sed tamen non sunt phantasmata, quia phantasmata sunt similitudines particularium, intellecta autem sunt universalia ab individuantibus conditionibus abstracta: unde phantasmata sunt indivisibilia in potentia et non in actu.
794. Second, at what difference (432a12), he asks how the primary concepts, the grasping of indivisible objects, are so different that they are not the phantasms; and he replies that these are not without phantasms, but nonetheless they are not phantasms, because phantasms are likenesses of particulars; the things understood, however, are universals abstracted from individuating conditions. Phantasms, then, are not actually, but only potentially, the indivisibles.
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L. 8 (Γ.9, 432a15–433a8)The principle of movement in living beings: what it is not
Proposita dicendorum intentione, arguit illas virium animae divisiones, quae dividuntur in rationales et irrationales, vel in rationalem, irascibilem et concupiscibilem; deinde probat vim animae motivam secundum locum non esse vegetandi principium, nec sensu, nec intellectum, vel appetitum
The principle of movement in living beings: what it is not
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Quoniam autem anima secundum duas diffinita est potentias quae animalium est, et discretio, quod intelligentiae opus est et sensus, et adhuc in movendo secundum locum motum, de sensu quidem et intellectu determinata sint tanta,
Since the soul is defined in terms of two powers that belong to animate beings—the one, discernment, which is the work of intellect and sensation; the other, movement by local motion—and so much has been determined about sensation and understanding,
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de movente autem quid forte animae sit, speculandum est, utrum una quaedam pars ipsius sit separabilis aut magnitudine aut ratione, aut omnis anima, et si pars aliqua, utrum propria quaedam sit praeter consuetas dici et dictas, aut harum una aliqua sit.
we must now contemplate what can be the moving factor in the soul: whether this is a single part of it, separable either in magnitude or by account, or the whole soul; and, if it is a part of the soul, whether it is a special part other than those generally acknowledged and already dealt with, or some one among these.
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Habet autem dubitationem mox quomodo oportet partes animae dicere et quot. Modo enim quodam infinitae videntur, et non solum quas quidam dicunt determinantes rationativam et irascibilem et appetitivam, hii autem rationem habentem et irrationabilem.
A difficulty at once arises as to how it is possible to speak at all of parts of the soul or to say how many they are. For in one way their number seems to be infinite and not merely, as some say, the reasoning, the irascible, and the appetitive; or as others say, the rational and irrational.
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Secundum enim differentias per quas has separant, et aliae videntur partes maiorem differentiam his habentes de quibus et nunc dictum est, vegetativa enim quae et plantis inest et omnibus animalibus vel viventibus, et sensitiua, quam neque sicut irrationalem neque sicut rationem habentem ponet quis utique facile.
For according to the differences by which they separate these, other parts seem to show greater diversity than in those just mentioned: in particular, the vegetative part, which is in plants and all animals or living things; and the sensitive, which one cannot easily place among either the irrational or the rational elements.
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Adhuc autem et phantastica quae per esse quidem ab omnibus altera est, cui autem harum eadem vel altera sit, habet multam dubitationem, si aliquis ponat separatas partes animae.
Further, there is the imaginative power, which seems in its being to be quite different from any other. If one is to suppose that parts of the soul are separate, with which of these others it is identical, or from which it differs, are difficult problems.
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Adhuc autem appetitiva, quae et ratione et potentia altera utique videtur esse ab omnibus, et inconveniens utique hanc sequestrare: et in rationativa enim voluntas fit, et in irrationabili concupiscentia et ira; si autem tria anima, in unoquoque erit appetitus.
Furthermore, there is the appetitive power, which seems distinct, both in account and as a different power, from all others; and it would be unsuitable to split this up. For will is in the rational part, desire and anger in the irrational; and if soul is three, an appetite will be in each.
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Et etiam de quo nunc sermo instat, quid movens secundum locum animal est? Secundum quidem enim augmentum et decrementum motum qui omnibus inest, quod omnibus inest videbitur utique movere, generativum et vegetativum. De respiratione autem et exspiratione et somno et vigilia, posterius perspiciendum; habent enim et haec dubitationem multam.
But to come to the matter that is now before us: what is it that moves the animal by local motion? For the movement that is in all animals, by which they grow and decrease, would certainly seem to be due to the generative and vegetative power. Of respiration and exhalation, sleep and waking, we must treat later on: these also raise many difficulties.
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Sed de motu secundum locum, quid movens animal secundum processivum motum, considerandum. Quod quidem ergo non vegetativua potentia, manifestum: semper enim propter aliquid motus hic, et aut cum phantasia aut appetitu est; nihil enim non appetens aut fugiens movetur, sed aut violentia.
But of local motion, we must consider what it is that moves an animal from place to place. It is obviously not the vegetative power. For a movement of this sort is always directed towards an end and is accompanied by phantasm or desire. For nothing is moved unless with desire or aversion, except under compulsion.
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Amplius et plante utique essent motivae et utique haberent aliquam partem organicam ad motum hunc.
Further, plants would also move about and would possess some organic part suitable for such movement.
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Similiter autem neque sensitivum: multa enim sunt animalium quae sensum quidem habent, manentia autem et inmobilia sunt per finem. Si igitur natura non facit frustra nihil neque deficit in necessariis, nisi in orbatis et inperfectis, huiusmodi autem animalium perfecta et non orbata sunt (signum autem est quia generativa sunt et augmentum habent et decrementum), quare et haberent utique partes organicas processionis.
Likewise, it is not the sensitive power. Many animals, which have sensation, are fixed and motionless all their lives. Yet if nature is never purposeless and it never fails to provide what is necessary (save in incomplete or defective specimens, but animals of this sort here are complete and not defective, and there is a sign of this in that they reproduce, grow and decrease), it follows that they should also have the organic parts for moving about.
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At vero neque rationativa et vocatus intellectus est movens: speculativus quidem enim nihil speculatur actuale, neque dicit de fugibili et persequibili, semper autem motus aut fugientis aut persequentis aliquid est.
Nor is the reasoning power or what is called “intellect” the moving power; for the contemplative power does not contemplate in view of action and does not speak of the avoidable or the pursuable. But all movement is an avoidance of, or the pursuit of, something.
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Sed neque cum speculatus fuerit aliquid huiusmodi, iam precipit aut persequi aut fugere, puta multotiens intelligit terribile aliquid aut delectabile, non iubet autem timere, sed cor movetur, si autem delectabile, altera aliqua pars.
Nor, even when it does contemplate something of this kind, does it at once command pursuit or avoidance—for instance, it often understands something frightening or pleasant, but without commanding ourselves to fear, though the heart is moved, or, in the case of something pleasant, some other part.
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Amplius et precipiente intellectu et dicente intelligentia fugere aliquid aut persequi, non movetur, sed secundum concupiscentiam agit, ut incontinens. Et totaliter autem videmus quoniam habens medicativam non sanatur, tanquam alterius quidem proprium sit agere secundum scientiam, sed non scientiae.
Further, when the intellect and the understanding do command avoidance or pursuit, the soul does not move accordingly but acts according to desire, as in the case of one without self-control. And in general, we observe that one who knows the art of medicine does not necessarily heal—as though it were proper to some power other than science to act according to science.
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At vero neque appetitus huius motus dominus est: abstinentes enim appetentes et concupiscentes non operantur quorum habent appetitum, sed secuntur intellectum.
But not even appetite has dominion over such movement as this. For those abstaining while still desiring and having an appetite for something do not do the things for which they have an appetite; instead, they obey reason.
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795. Quoniam autem anima etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de partibus animae vegetativa, sensitiva et intellectiva, determinat nunc quarto de parte animae motiva. Et dividitur in partes duas:
795. Since the soul is defined by two powers (432a15). Having studied the soul in its vegetative, sensitive, and intellectual parts, the Philosopher now considers its fourth part, the motive part. And this is divided into two parts.
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in prima dicit de quo est intentio;
In the first part, he sets out his intention.
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in secunda prosequitur, ibi: habet autem dubitationem etc.
In the second, he pursues it, at a difficulty at once arises (432a22; [796]).
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Dicit ergo quod, quia anima quae est animalium definita est etiam ab antiquis philosophis secundum duas potentias, id est secundum quod habet potentiam ad duo, quorum unum est discretio quae fit per cognitionem, quae quidem discretio est opus et intellectivae et sensitivae partis, aliud autem est movere secundum locum, de sensu et intellectu sint tanta determinata quanta in prioribus habita sunt, sed nunc speculandum est de principio movente, quid animae sit, utrum scilicet sit aliqua pars animae separabilis ab aliis vel magnitudine, id est subiecto, ita quod habeat distinctum locum in corpore ab aliis potentiis, sicut Platonici posuerunt, vel sit separabilis ab aliis partibus ratione tantum, aut non sit pars animae, sed tota anima; et dato quod sit aliqua pars animae, remanet considerandum utrum sit quaedam alia pars animae praeter illas quae consueverunt dici ab aliis et praeter eas quae dictae sunt a nobis, aut est una earum.
Introducing the problem, he observes first of all that even the old philosophers defined the soul in terms of two powers that belong to animate beings, that is, insofar as it has the power for two things, one of which is discernment, which arises from knowledge, which discernment is the work of the intellectual and sensitive parts; and the other is the power to move with local motion; and so much has been determined about sensation and understanding in what has preceded, now it is the moving principle that we must contemplate, what it is of the soul: whether it is a part of the soul separable from the other parts either in magnitude, that is, in subject, so that it is located in a place of the body distinct from the other powers, as the Platonists supposed, or, on the contrary, separable only in account; or whether it is not a part of the soul at all, but the entire soul; or whether, granted that it is a part, it is a part other than those usually acknowledged and distinct from those already studied in this treatise, or is it one of them.
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796. Deinde cum dicit: habet autem dubitationem, prosequitur suam intentionem.
796. Next, at a difficulty at once arises (432a22), he pursues his aim.
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Et primo per modum disputationis;
He first begins by way of disputation.
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secundo per modum determinationis, ibi: videntur autem duo haec moventia.
Second, he proceeds to a determination of certain conclusions, at it seems that these two are the movers (433a9; [818]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
This section contains two parts:
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primo disputat contra distinctionem potentiarum animae;
first, an argument against a certain division of the powers of the soul;
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secundo specialiter circa principium motivum, quae pars animae sit, ibi: sed de motu secundum locum etc.
and second, an argument, at but of local motion (432b13; [808]), concerning especially the motive-principle as a part of the soul.
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Circa primum duo facit:
As regards the first, he does two things:
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primo recitat divisionem potentiarum animae quam quidam ponebant;
first, he states a division of the powers of the soul made by some philosophers;
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secundo disputat contra eas, ibi: secundum enim differentias.
and second, at for according to (432a26; [798]), he disputes it.
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Dicit ergo primo quod mox in principio huius inquisitionis habet dubitationem quomodo oporteat distinguere partes animae, et quot sint, quia secundum aliquem modum videntur esse infinitae, id est non posse comprehendi sub aliquo certo numero; et hoc verum esset, si singulis operationibus animae et motibus qui sunt ab anima necesse esset attribuere diversas partes animae et sic videtur quod non solum sint illae partes quas quidam determinant, scilicet rationalem et irascibilem et appetitivam, id est concupiscibilem, et haec quidem divisio non comprehendit omnes animae partes, sed solum vires motivas in homine;
He begins then by saying that we are met at once in the beginning of our inquiry by the difficulty of how it is possible to distinguish the parts of the soul. What should be the principle of this division, and how many powers are there? In a way it seems to be infinite, that is, it seems that it cannot be comprehended under a precise number; and this would indeed be the truth if every act or movement in the soul had to be assigned to its own distinct part. Thus it seems that the parts are not as some determine it, that is, the rational, the irascible, and the appetitive (that is, concupiscible) part; for this division does not embrace all the parts of the soul but only the motive powers in man.
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797. alii vero distinguunt vires animae per rationem habentem et irrationalem, sed haec quidem divisio, licet secundum aliquem modum comprehendat omnes animae partes, non tamen est propria divisio partium animae secundum quod sunt animae partes, sed forte solum secundum quod sunt in anima rationem habente et sic utitur ea Aristoteles in I Ethicorum.
797. And others distinguish the soul’s powers into what has reason and what is non-rational, but this division too, though in a way it embraces all the parts of the soul, still is not a proper division of the parts of the soul as parts of the soul but only perhaps inasmuch as they are in the soul that has reason; and so Aristotle uses it in the Ethics.1
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798. Deinde cum dicit: secundum enim differentias, obiicit contra praedictas divisiones multipliciter.
798. Next, at for according to the differences (432a26), he brings several objections against these divisions.
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Prima obiectio est quod, si istae differentiae secundum quas diversificant aliqui partes animae sufficiunt ad diversitatem in partibus animae constituendam, inveniuntur aliae partes maiorem differentiam habentes ad invicem quam illae quae dictae sunt, de quibus etiam in hoc libro dictum est: pars enim vegetativa est in plantis et in omnibus animalibus sive in omnibus viventibus, et sensitiva etiam est in omnibus animalibus; et manifestum est quod vegetativa et sensitiva plus differunt ad invicem et a rationali et irascibili et concupiscibili quam irascibilis differat a concupiscibili, et tamen istae duae potentiae non comprehenduntur sub illis divisionibus.
First, granted that the differences just mentioned between the various parts of the soul are sufficient to establish the diversity of the parts of the soul, one finds other parts that seem to show greater diversity than in those just mentioned.1 For instance, in plants and all animals (and thus, in all living things) exists the vegetative part; and in all animals there is also the sensitive part; and these two obviously differ from each other, and also from the rational, irascible, and concupiscible parts, more than the irascible and concupiscible parts differ from each other. Yet neither of these two powers is included in the divisions given above.
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799. Et quod non comprehendantur sub prima divisione, manifestum est: patet enim quod neque vegetativa neque sensitiva potest dici esse rationalis vel irascibilis vel concupiscibilis. Unde, hoc praetermisso, probat quod non comprehendantur sub secunda divisione, dicens quod non de facili potest aliquis vel vegetativam vel sensitivam ponere vel irrationalem vel rationem habentem.
799. Nor, it is clear, are they included in the first division: for it is obvious that neither the vegetative nor the sensitive can be said to be rational, irascible, or concupiscible. Whence, passing to the second division, he shows that it is not embraced under the second division, saying that it is not easy for anyone to place either the vegetative or the sensitive with either the irrational or rational elements.
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800. Et quidem quod neutra harum habeat rationem, manifestum est, sed quod neque etiam aliqua harum sit irrationalis, ex hoc manifestum esse potest, quia irrationale est vel quod est contrarium rationi vel quod est natum habere rationem et non habet, quorum neutrum convenit dictis partibus (si enim diceret negationem tantum rationis, non posset poni genus potentiarum animae). Unde videtur quod praemissae divisiones potentiarum animae sint inconvenientes.
800. That neither of these has reason is obvious, but that neither of these is irrational can become manifest from the following. For the irrational is either what is contrary to reason or what is naturally apt to have reason but does not have it; and neither of the aforesaid parts is such. (For if it were to signify only the negation of reason, it could not be presented as a genus of powers of soul.) Clearly, then, the aforesaid divisions of the soul’s powers are inadequate.
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801. Secundam rationem ad idem ponit ibi: adhuc autem et phantasia, dicens quod pars animae phantastica, quae secundum rationem ab omnibus aliis differt, habet multam dubitationem, cum qua praedictarum potentiarum debeat esse eadem vel altera, et praecipue si aliquis ponat partes animae separatas subiecto, sicut aliqui posuerunt.
801. Then, at further, there is the imaginative power (432a31), he observes that the imaginative power of the soul, which can certainly be distinguished in its account from any other, has many difficult problems; is it identical with some of the powers already discussed, or does it differ, and especially if we were to follow those who say that the parts of the soul are separate in their subject.
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802. Tertiam rationem ponit ibi: adhuc autem appetitiva, dicens quod etiam vis appetitiva videtur esse altera ratione et potentia ab omnibus partibus animae, et, si secundum praedictam divisionem partes animae subiecto distinguantur in rationalem et irrationalem, inconveniens videbitur sequestrare, id est dividere, appetitivam in duas subiecto differentes, et tamen hoc oportebit si quis dicat rationale et irrationale partes animae subiecto distinctas, quia quaedam appetitiva est in parte rationali, scilicet voluntas, et quaedam in parte irrationali, scilicet concupiscibilis et irascibilis; et, si quis distinguat partes animae in tres subiecto distinctas, scilicet rationale, irascibile et concupiscibile, sequetur quod in unoquaque eorum erit appetitus: in rationativa enim voluntas, ut dictum est, irascibilis autem est appetitus et similiter concupiscibilis; erunt igitur tres appetitus in anima, subiecto differentes, secundum praedictam divisionem.
802. Then again, at furthermore, there is the appetitive power (432b3), he remarks that the appetitive power seems distinct, both in account and as a different power, from all other parts of the soul. Now, assuming that the soul was so divided into a rational and an irrational part that each was a thing distinct from the other in subject, it will seem unsuitable to split up, that is, to divide, the appetitive part into two differing in subject. And this will be necessary if someone says the rational and irrational parts of the soul are distinct in subject; for there is something appetitive in the rational part (namely, the will) and something appetitive in the irrational part (namely, the irascible and concupiscible powers). And if someone distinguishes the parts of the soul into three distinct subjects (namely, the rational, the irascible, and the concupiscible), it will follow that an appetite will be in each of them: for will is in the rational part, as has been said, but the irascible is an appetite and so is the concupiscible; therefore, there will be three appetites in the soul, different in subject, according to the aforesaid division.
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803. Sed quaeritur quare in appetitu sensitivo sunt duae potentiae appetitivae, scilicet irascibilis et concupiscibilis, in appetitu autem rationali est unus appetitus tantum, scilicet voluntas?
803. But the question now arises why the sensitive part of the soul has two appetitive capacities, the irascible and the concupiscible, whereas there is only one appetite in the rational, the will.
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Et dicendum quod potentiae distinguuntur secundum rationes obiectorum, obiectum autem appetitivae est bonum apprehensum,
I answer that powers are distinguished according to the accounts of their objects; and the object of appetite is the good as apprehended.
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804. alio autem modo apprehendit bonum intellectus et sensus: nam intellectus apprehendit bonum secundum universalem rationem boni, sensus autem apprehendit bonum sub determinata ratione boni; et ideo appetitus qui sequitur apprehensionem intellectus est unus tantum et distinguitur ab appetitu qui sequitur apprehensionem sensus, <duo autem sunt appetitus qui sequuntur apprehensionem sensus> et distinguuntur secundum diversam rationem boni apprehensi: nam aliquid apprehensum per sensum habet rationem boni appetibilis inquantum est delectabile secundum sensum, et ad hoc bonum ordinatur concupiscibilis; aliquid autem habet rationem boni et appetibilis inquantum praeficitur delectabilibus quasi habens facultatem ad libitum utendi eis, et ad hoc ordinatur irascibilis, quae est quasi propugnatrix concupiscibilis; et inde est quod animalia non irascuntur neque pugnant nisi propter delectabilia, id est propter cibos et venerea, ut dicitur in libro VIII De historiis animalium;
804. Now, the intellect and the senses apprehend the good differently: the intellect apprehends it under the universal account of goodness, but the senses apprehend the good under a determinate account of goodness. And this is why there is only one kind of appetite following intellectual apprehension, and it is distinct from an appetite that follows sense apprehension; however, there are two appetites that follow the apprehension of sense, and they are distinguished according to the diverse accounts of apprehended good. For something apprehended by sense holds the account of the good desirable as delightful to the sense; and to this good is ordered the concupiscible appetite. But something can hold the account of the good and desirable insofar as it is put in charge of pleasant things, as itself having the capacity of freely using them; and to this is ordered the irascible appetite, which is what fights, as it were, on behalf of the concupiscible. Thus, animals only get angry and fight on account of things that are pleasant, that is to say, for the sake of food or mating, as it says in History of Animals 8.1
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805. propter hoc etiam omnes passiones irascibilis incipiunt a passionibus concupiscibilis et terminantur in eas: ira enim a tristitia commovetur et in delectationem finitur; irati enim punientes delectantur. Et propter hoc dicunt quidam quod obiectum irascibilis est arduum.
805. Therefore, all passions of the irascible appetite start from and end in passions of the concupiscible appetite. For anger springs from pain and ends in a pleasure; for the angry find their satisfaction in punishing.1 Hence, some say that the difficult is the precise object of the irascible appetite.
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806. Quod autem a quibusdam dicitur quod irascibilis ordinatur ad fugam mali, nullam omnino habet rationem. Eadem enim est potentia contrariorum, sicut visus albi et nigri, unde bonum et malum non possunt diversificare potentiam appetitivam; et propter hoc, sicut amor boni pertinet ad concupiscibilem, ita odium mali, ut dicit philosophus in II Topicorum, et spes de bono et timor de malo pertinent ad irascibilem.
806. But it is quite unreasonable to say, as some do, that the irascible appetite is ordered to avoiding evil. For one and the same power bears upon contraries—as sight upon both black and white; hence good and evil cannot by themselves differentiate appetitive powers. Hence, just as loving some good pertains to the concupiscible appetite, so does hating an evil, as Aristotle says in book two of the Topics; and similarly, both the hope of good and the fear of evil pertain to the irascible appetite.1
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807. Quartam rationem ponit ibi: et etiam de quo nunc etc., dicens quod etiam illud de quo nunc quaerimus, quid sit movens animal secundum locum, facit dubitationem contra praedictas divisiones, quia non videtur sub eis contineri. De motu autem augmenti et decrementi, qui est communis omnibus inferioribus, manifestum est quod habet principium commune omnibus viventibus, scilicet generativum et vegetativum. Quaedam autem aliae mutationes animalium sunt, sicut respiratio et exspiratio, somnus et vigilia, de quibus posterius determinandum est quid causet ea: habent enim multam dubitationem et propter hoc specialem tractatum exigunt.
807. Then, at but to come (432b7), he observes that what is now before us, namely, what is it that moves the animal by local motion, does not seem to be accounted for by the aforesaid divisions, because it does not seem to be contained under them. Now, concerning the movement of growth and decrease, which is common to all lower things, it is manifest that this has a principle common to all living things, that is, the generative and nutritive power. But the cause of certain other changes, such as breathing in and out, or sleeping and waking, should be determined later: they also raise many difficulties and must therefore be given a special treatment.
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808. Deinde cum dicit: sed de motu secundum locum, procedit disputative ad inquirendum quid sit principium motus secundum locum in animalibus.
808. Then, at but of local motion (432b13), he asks disputatively what is the principle of local movement in animals.
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Et primo ostendit quod non sit vegetativa potentia;
And he shows first that it is not the vegetative power;
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secundo quod nec sensitiva, ibi: similiter autem neque sensitivum;
second, at likewise (432b19; [810]), that it is not a sensitive power;
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tertio quod nec intellectiva, ibi: at vero neque rationativa;
third, at nor is the reasoning power (432b26; [812]), that it is not an intellective power;
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quarto quod nec appetitiva, ibi: at vero neque appetitus.
and fourth, at but not even appetite (433a6; [817]), that it is not the appetitive power.
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Dicit ergo primo quod considerandum est nunc quid sit movens animal secundum locum motu processivo. Et quod hoc non sit potentia vegetativa, ostendit duabus rationibus.
First, he says that now we must consider what it is that moves an animal progressively, according to place. That it is not the vegetative power he proves by two arguments.
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Quarum prima talis est: semper motus processivus secundum locum est propter aliquid imaginatum et desideratum, non enim animal movetur nisi appetens aut fugiens aliquid, nisi forte per violentiam; sed phantasia et appetitus non competunt parti vegetativae; ergo pars vegetativa non est principium motus localis processivi.
The first is as follows. Progressive local movement from place to place is always directed towards an end the animal imagines and desires; for no animal is moved unless with desire or aversion for something, except perhaps by violence. But since the vegetative part is without imagination and desire, it cannot be the principle of this kind of local movement.
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809. Secundam rationem ad idem ponit ibi: amplius et plantae, quae talis est: pars vegetativa est etiam in plantis; si igitur pars vegetativa esset principium motus localis processivi, sequeretur quod plantae essent motivae sui ipsarum secundum hunc motum et haberent partes organicas congruas huic motui, quod patet esse falsum; non ergo pars vegetativa est principium motus localis processivi in animalibus.
809. The second argument, at further, plants (432b17), runs thus. The vegetative part is also in plants; if, therefore, the vegetative part were the principle of progressive local motion, all plants would move about in this way and would possess the necessary organs for doing so: which they obviously do not and are not. Therefore, the vegetative part is not the principle of this kind of local movement.
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810. Deinde cum dicit: similiter autem neque sensitivuum, ostendit quod nec etiam sensus est principium motus praedicti, tali ratione: sensus est in omnibus animalibus; si igitur sensus esset principium motus praedicti, sequeretur quod omne animal hoc motu moveretur;
810. Next, at likewise (432b19), he shows that sensation is not the principle we are seeking. For sense is in all animals; if, therefore, sense were the principle of the aforementioned motion, it would follow that every animal would be moved with this motion from place to place.
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quod patet esse falsum, quia multa sunt animalia habentia sensum quae tamen manent semper in eodem loco et sunt immobilia per finem, id est quamdiu vivunt.
But this is false, since many animals, though capable of sensation, are fixed in one place and motionless so long as they live.
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811. Et quia posset aliquis dicere quod hoc non est propter hoc quod deficiat eis principium motivum, sed quia deficiunt eis instrumenta apta ad motum, ideo ad removendum hoc subiungit quod natura nihil facit frustra neque deficit in necessariis, nisi in animalibus orbatis et imperfectis, sicut sunt animalia monstruosa, quae quidem monstra accidunt praeter intentionem naturae ex corruptione alicuius principii in semine; sed animalia immobilia sunt perfecta in sua specie et non sunt orbata quasi monstra (cuius signum est quia generant sibi simile et habent debitum augmentum et decrementum, quod non est in animalibus orbatis); ergo in huiusmodi animalibus natura nihil facit frustra neque deficit in necessariis;
811. And to meet the objection that perhaps the reason why such animals are immobile is that they do not lack the motive principle but merely the organs suited for the movement, he adds that nature is never purposeless and it never fails to provide what is necessary for a given animal, unless this animal is incomplete or defective, as are deformed animals; these deformities in fact occur outside the intention of nature, due to a corruption of some principle within the parental seed. But immobile animals are complete in their own species, not defective like deformed births; a sign of this is that they generate offspring in their own likeness and they grow and decrease quite normally, which does not occur in defective animals. In such animals, therefore, nature does not act without purpose or fail in what is necessary for life.
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unde sequitur quod, si habent principium motus, quod haberent partes organicas dispositas ad motum processivum, alias principium motivum esset in eis superfluum et necessaria ad executionem potentiae motivae eis deficerent. Ex hoc autem accipere possumus quod cuicumque inest aliquod principium vitae, insunt ei organa convenientia illi principio, et quod partes corporis sint propter partes animae.
If, then, they were endowed with a principle of motion, they would also have the organic parts of progressive motion; otherwise this motive principle in them would be superfluous, and they would be unequipped with the instruments necessary for the execution of the motive power. Note that this reasoning implies that wherever a principle of life exists, there also will be found organs congruent with that principle, and that the parts of a body are for the sake of the parts of its soul.
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812. Deinde cum dicit: at vero, ostendit quod etiam intellectus non est principium motivum. Et dicit quod neque pars rationativa quae vocatur intellectus videtur esse movens (unde accipere possumus quod ratio et intellectus non sunt diversae partes animae, sed ipse intellectus noster dicitur ratio inquantum per inquisitionem quamdam pervenit ad cognoscendum intelligibilem veritatem);
812. Next, where he says, nor is the reasoning power (432b26), he shows that not even the intellect is the motive principle, saying that nor is it the reasoning part, which is called “intellect,” that seems to be the moving power. Hence, we can understand here that reason and intellect are not different parts of the soul, but our very intellect is called “reason” insofar as it comes to know an intelligible truth by a certain inquiry.
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813. et quod intellectus non sit principium movens, probat primo quantum ad intellectum speculativum, quia, cum intellectus speculativus speculative considerat ea quae sunt tantum speculabilia et nullo modo agibilia, sicut cum considerat quod triangulus habet tres angulos aequales duobus rectis et alia huiusmodi, manifestum est quod speculativus intellectus non speculatur aliquid actuale, neque aliquid dicit de fugibili et persequibili, et sic non potest movere, quia semper motus est fugientis aliquid secundum appetitum aut persequentis.
813. That intellect is not the moving principle he first proves with regard to the speculative intellect. For the speculative intellect contemplatively considers things that can only be contemplated and cannot be brought about, for example, when one considers that a triangle has three angles equal to two right angles, and the like. Therefore it is manifest that the contemplative intellect does not contemplate in view of action, and does not speak of something avoidable or desirable. And in this way it cannot cause movement; for all movement is an avoidance of, or the pursuit of, something, by way of desire.
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814. Aliquando autem intellectus considerat aliquid agibile, non tamen practice sed speculative, quia considerat ipsum in universali et non secundum quod est principium particularis operis; et de hoc dicit consequenter quod neque intellectus secundum quod fuerit speculatus, id est speculative consideraverit, aliquid huiusmodi, id est aliquid agibile, nondum praecipit vel persequi vel fugere, sicut cum multotiens intelligimus aliquod terribile vel delectabile, sed intellectus non iubet timere vel desiderare; sed aliquando movetur cor ad timendum absque imperio intellectus, et si iterum delectabile moveat appetitus, erit aliqua alia pars quam cor quae movetur
814. But sometimes the intellect considers something that can be done, yet not in a practical way but only speculatively—considering it universally, not insofar as it is a principle of a particular act. So he says that nor does the intellect, when it does contemplate, that is, consider speculatively, something of this kind, that is, something that can be brought about, right then command pursuit or avoidance. For example, we often think of something frightening or pleasant but the intellect is not commanding one to fear or desire them; but sometimes the heart is moved toward being afraid without a command of the intellect. And in the case of something pleasant, he adds, moving the appetite, there will be some other part that is moved besides the heart.
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815. (et hoc dicit propter opinionem Platonis qui posuit partes animae distinctas subiecto, ita quod irascibilis cuius est timere sit in corde et concupiscibilis sit in aliqua alia parte corporis, puta in hepate); sic igitur manifestum est quod intellectus, speculative considerando aliquid agibile, non movet. Ex quo patet quod intellectus speculativus nullo modo movet.
815. This he adds with Plato in mind, who located the parts of the soul in different parts of the body: the irascible part, whence fear arises, in the heart; and the concupiscible in some other part of the body, such as the liver. Clearly, then, the intellect when considering in a speculative way something that can be brought about does not move one. As such, it is evident the speculative intellect is in no way the motive power.
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816. Deinde cum dicit: amplius et praecipiente, probat quod nec etiam practicus movet, dicens quod, etiam intellectu practico praecipiente, quod contingit cum intelligentia dicit aliquid fugiendum aut persequendum, non propter hoc homo movetur, sed agit secundum concupiscentiam, sicut patet de incontinentibus qui habent rectam rationem sed non inmanent rationi rectae; unde videtur quod intellectus non moveat. Probat autem idem ex medicis, qui habentes scientiam medicativam non sanantur, quia non faciunt ea in seipsis quae praecipit ars; ex quo videtur quod agere secundum scientiam non sit scientiae practicae, sed alicuius alterius.
816. Next, at further, when (433a1), he shows that not even the practical intellect moves one to action. For he says that, even when the practical intellect does command, it is possible that when the intellect says something should be avoided or pursued, a man may nevertheless not be moved, but rather acts according to his desire—as is clear with those without self-control, who have correct reasoning but do not remain with their correct reason. It would seem, therefore, that intellect does not move us. Similarly, doctors who know the art of medicine do not recover health, because they do not do for themselves what their art commands. Apparently, then, to act according to science involves some other power besides even practical science.
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817. Deinde cum dicit: at vero neque appetitus, ostendit quod pars appetitiva non sit dominativa super hunc motum, quia videmus quod continentes appetunt et concupiscunt, sed non operantur ea quorum habent appetitum; e converso <est in> incontinentibus, ut manifestius apparet in VII Ethicorum. Videtur igitur quod neque appetitus moveat.
817. Lastly, with but not even appetite (433a6), he shows that the appetitive part does not have dominion over our movements; for we may see people with self-control in a state of desire and concupiscence, yet they do not do the things for which they have an appetite. And the converse is true of those without self-control, as he explains more clearly in Ethics 7.1 So it seems that neither is the appetite the cause of movement.
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L. 9 (Γ.10, 433a9–433b27)The principles of movement in living beings: what they are
Principium motus localis in animalibus immobile, ipsum esse appetibile ostendit: principium autem, quod motum movet, ipsum appetitivum; quod autem movetur localiter, ipsum animal, instrumentum autem cor
The principles of movement in living beings: what they are
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Videntur autem duo haec moventia, aut appetitus aut intellectus, si aliquis phantasiam posuerit sicut intelligentiam quandam: multi enim praeter scientiam secuntur phantasias, et in aliis animalibus non intelligentia neque ratio est, sed phantasia. Utraque ergo haec motiva secundum locum, intellectus et appetitus.
It seems that these two are the movers: either appetite or intellect (if one is to account imagination as a sort of intelligence). For many people follow the imaginations instead of intellectual knowledge, while in the other animals there is no intelligence or reason at all, but only imagination. Both of these effect movement in place, then—intellect and appetite.
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Intellectus autem qui propter aliquid ratiocinatur et qui practicus; differt autem a speculativo fine.
Now, the intellectual power that reasons for the sake of something is practical, but it differs from the speculative by its end.
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Et appetitus propter aliquid omnis est; cuius enim appetitus, hoc principium practici intellectus, ultimum autem principium actionis est.
Every appetite also is for the sake of something; for what the appetite is for is the practical intellect’s starting point, and the last thing is the starting point of the action.
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Quare rationabiliter haec duo videntur moventia, appetitus et intelligentia practica; appetibile enim movet, et propter hoc intelligentia movet, quia principium huius est quod appetibile. Et phantasia autem cum moveat, non movet sine appetitu.
Hence, it seems reasonable that both appetite and the practical intellect are movers. For the object of appetite causes the motion, and because of this the intellect also causes the motion, since its own principle is the object of appetite. And when imagination causes the motion, it only does so with appetite.
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Unum igitur movens, quod appetibile. Si enim duo, intellectus et appetitus, movebant, secundum communem utique aliquam speciem movebant; nunc autem intellectus non videtur movens sine appetitu: voluntas enim appetitus est, cum autem secundum rationem movetur, et secundum voluntatem movetur. Appetitus autem movet praeter rationem: concupiscentia enim appetitus quidam est.
Therefore there is one mover—the object of the appetite. For if there are two movers, intellect and appetite, they were causing the motion at least in virtue of some common species. However, the intellect does not now seem to be a mover without the appetite; for the will is an appetite. But when there is movement according to reason, there is also movement according to will. However, an appetite does cause movement against reason, for concupiscence is a sort of appetite.
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Intellectus quidem igitur omnis rectus est. Appetitus autem et phantasia et recta et non recta. Unde semper quidem movet appetibile, sed hoc est bonum aut apparens bonum; non omne autem, sed actuale bonum. Actuale autem est contingens et aliter se habere. Quod quidem igitur huiusmodi potentia movet animae quae vocatur appetitus, manifestum est.
All understanding, then, is right, but appetite and imagination may be right or not right. Hence, the object of appetite is indeed always what causes motion, but this is a good or an apparent good—not every good, however, but the practical good. Now, a practical object is possible and able to be other than it is. It is, therefore, evident that such a power of the soul, which is called “appetite,” causes the motion.
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Dividentibus autem animae partes, si secundum potentias dividant et separent, valde multae fiunt, vegetabile, sensibile, intellectivum, consiliativum, adhuc appetitivum. Haec enim plus differunt ab invicem quam concupiscibile et irascibile.
For those who divide the soul into parts, if they divide and separate it according to its powers, a great many parts result: the vegetative, the sensitive, the intellectual, the deliberative, and lastly, the appetitive. For these differ from one another much more than do the concupiscible and irascible.
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Quoniam autem appetitus fiunt contrarii ad invicem, hoc autem accidit cum ratio et concupiscentiae contrariae fuerint, fit autem in temporis sensum habentibus: intellectus quidem enim propter futurum retrahere iubet, concupiscentia autem propter ipsum iam; videtur enim quod iam delectabile et simpliciter delectabile et bonum simpliciter, propterea quod non videtur quod futurum.
Since appetites do become contrary to one another, but this occurs when reason and desire are contrary, this occurs only in things that have a sense of time. For the intellect commands restraint on account of what will happen, whereas desire is for what is now present. For it seems that what is pleasant right now is pleasant simply speaking, and good simply speaking, on account of the fact that the future is not seen.
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Specie quidem igitur unum erit movens, appetibile aut appetitivum, primum autem omnium appetibile; hoc enim movet cum non movetur, eo quod sit intellectum aut imaginatum. Numero autem plura moventia.
The mover, therefore, will be specifically one—the object of appetite or the appetite itself, but the first of all things is the object of appetite; for this is what causes motion without itself being moved, by its being understood or imagined—but numerically, there are many movers.
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Quoniam autem tria sunt, unum quidem movens, secundum autem quo movet, et tertium quod movetur, movens autem duplex, aliud quidem immobile, aliud autem quod movetur, est autem immobile actuale bonum, movens autem et quod movetur appetitivum:
Since there are these three: one, the mover; second, that by which it moves; third, that which is moved; and since the mover is twofold (the immobile one and the mover that is also moved), the immobile mover is, accordingly, the good in action, whereas that which moves and is moved is the appetitive power.
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movetur enim quod appetit secundum quod appetit, et appetitus actus aut motus quidam est; quod autem movetur, animal est; quo vero movet organo appetitus, iam hoc corporeum est. Unde in communibus corporis et animae operibus considerandum est de ipsis.
For what desires is moved insofar as it desires, and its appetite is certain act or movement. What is moved is the animal; that by which it moves is the organ of appetite, and this is right away something bodily. Hence, what pertains to it must be studied along with activities common to body and soul.
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Nunc autem, ut in summa dicatur, movens organicae ubi principium et finis idem, velud <ginglismus>: hic enim gibbosum et concavum hoc quidem finis, illud vero principium. Unde aliud quidem quiescit, aliud vero movetur; ratione quidem altera entia, magnitudine vero inseparabilia. Omnia enim pulsu et tractu moventur; propter quod oportet sicut in circulo manere aliquid et hinc incipere motum.
Now, in summary, organic movement arises where the principle and end are the same: as in the joint of a hinge are the convex and the concave: the latter being the end, and the former, the beginning. Hence one is at rest while the other is moved. They are distinct in account but inseparable in magnitude. For all things move by pushing and pulling. Hence there must, as in a circle, be something that stays still, from which point movement begins.
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818. Videntur autem duo haec moventia etc. Postquam philosophus processit disputative ad inquirendum quid sit principium motus localis in animalibus, hic determinat veritatem.
818. It seems that these two are the movers (433a9). So far the Philosopher has disputatively pursued his inquiry into what the principle of local movement in animals is; but now he determines the truth.
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Et primo ostendit in universali quid sit principium motus;
First, he shows in a universal way what that principle of motion is.
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secundo quomodo hoc principium in diversis inveniatur diversimode, ibi: omnino quidem igitur etc.
And second, at generally then (433b27; [836]), he shows how it varies in different subjects.
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Circa primum duo facit:
The first point again divides into two:
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primo ostendit quid sit principium motus in animalibus;
first, a statement of the principle of motion in animals;
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secundo docet ordinem quo motus iste completur quantum ad motores et mobilia, ibi: specie quidem igitur.
and second, at the mover, therefore, will be specifically one (433b10; [830]), the order in which that motion is completed, in regard to the movers and the mobiles.
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Circa primum tria facit:
Again, the first subdivides into three points:
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primo ponit duo esse principia motus;
first, he posits that there are two principles of motion;
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secundo reducit ea in unum, ibi: intellectus autem etc.;
second, he reduces them to one, at now, the intellectual power (433a14; [820]);
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tertio solvit obiectionem superius positam, ibi: quoniam autem appetitus fiunt contrarii.
and third, he answers an objection already raised, at since appetites (433b5; [829]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod, consideratis his quae praedicta sunt, cum manifestum sit quod vegetativa pars non sit movens et similiter neque sensus cum non omnia in quibus haec sunt moveri inveniantur, ut ex dictis patet,
First, then, he says that the foregoing examination makes it clear that neither the vegetative nor the sensitive part is the principle of movement, since they are found in things that do not move, as is clear from what has been said.1
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videntur duo haec esse moventia, scilicet appetitus et intellectus, ita tamen quod sub intellectu comprehendatur etiam phantasia, quae habet aliquid simile intellectui, inquantum movet ad absentiam sensibilium sicut intellectus, quia hoc etiam est principium motus:
It seems that these two are the movers: namely, intellect and appetite. Note, however, that he includes imagination under “intellect”; for it resembles intellect in that it moves one to action in the absence of sense-objects as does the intellect, because this too is a principle of motion.
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819. multi enim homines, praetermissa scientia intellectus, sequuntur in suis motibus phantasiam, sicut illi qui non secundum rationem agunt, sed impetu moventur ad aliquid agendum; et in aliis animalibus manifestum est quod non est intellectus neque ratio quae movere possit, sed solum phantasia. Sic ergo manifestum est quod utraque haec movent, intellectus, sub se comprehendens phantasiam, et appetitus.
819. For many men, in their own movements, follow their imagination, setting aside the knowledge of their intellect; for instance, those who are moved to do something by an impulse and do not act according to their reason. Besides, in the other animals it is obvious that there is no intellect or reason that can move them, but only imagination. Clearly, then, both of these effect movement: intellect, including imagination, and appetite.
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820. Deinde cum dicit: intellectus autem qui propter aliquid, reducit praedicta moventia in unum. Et circa hoc tria facit:
820. Then, at now, the intellectual power (433a14), he reduces the aforementioned two movers to one; and this in three stages:
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primo ostendit propositum;
first, he shows the reduction;
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secundo ex eo quod ostensum est assignat causam cuiusdam accidentis circa motum animalium, ibi: intellectus quidem igitur etc.;
second, at all understanding, then, is right (433a26; [826]), he uses what he has shown to assign the cause of a particular accidental factor in animal movements;
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tertio improbat divisionem potentiarum quam antiqui ponebant, ibi: dividentibus autem.
and third, he refutes an early division of the powers of the soul, at for those who divide (433a31; [828]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod intellectus qui movet est intellectus qui ratiocinatur propter aliquid, non propter ratiocinari tantum, et hic est intellectus practicus, qui differt a speculativo secundum finem: nam speculativus speculatur veritatem non propter aliquid aliud, sed propter ipsam tantum, practicus autem speculatur veritatem propter operationem.
First, then, he says that the intellect that moves one is the intellectual power that reasons for the sake of something, not for the sake of mere reasoning; and this is the practical intellect, which differs from the speculative by its end; for while the speculative contemplates the truth not for the sake of anything else, but only for its own sake, the practical intellect contemplates the truth for the sake of an activity.
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821. Et manifestum est etiam quod omnis appetitus est propter aliquid (stultum enim esset dicere quod aliquis appetat propter appetere; nam appetere est quidam motus in aliud tendens); id autem cuius est appetitus, scilicet appetibile, est principium intellectus practici; nam id quod est primo appetibile est finis a quo incipit consideratio intellectus practici: cum enim volumus aliquid deliberare de agendis, primo supponimus finem et deinde procedimus per ordinem ad inquirenda illa quae agenda sunt propter finem sicut procedentes semper a posteriori ad prius usque ad id quod primo imminet nobis agendum; et hoc est quod subdit quod ultimum in consideratione intellectus practici est principium actionis, id est illud unde debemus actionem incipere. Unde rationabiliter dictum est quod haec duo sunt moventia, appetitus et intellectus practicus; quia enim ipsum appetibile movet, quod est primum consideratum ab intellectu practico, propter hoc dicitur intellectus practicus movere, quia scilicet eius principium, quod est appetibile, movet.
821. Now, it is also obvious that every appetite is for the sake of something. For it is stupid to say that someone desires just for the sake of desiring; For desiring is a certain motion tending toward something else. Moreover, what the appetite is for, that is, the object of the appetite, is the practical intellect’s starting point; for that which is the first object of the appetite is the end from which the consideration of the practical intellect begins. For when we wish to deliberate about something among objects of action, we first lay down the end and then proceed through an order in inquire about things that should be done for the sake of the end, proceeding always from what comes later to what comes before, all the way to what is first at hand for us to carry out. So he adds that the last thing that the practical intellect considers is the starting point of the action—that is, that from which we should begin the action. This is why it is reasonable to assert that both appetite and the practical intellect are movers; for the object of appetite itself causes motion, and it is also what the practical intellect first considers; because of this, the practical intellect is said to cause the motion because, namely, its own principle, the object of appetite, moves it.
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822. Et quod dicitur de intellectu, intelligendum est et de phantasia, quia, cum phantasia movet, non movet sine appetitu; non enim movet nisi inquantum repraesentat appetibile, sicut nec intellectus.
822. And what is said of the intellect should be understood also of the imagination, for when imagination causes motion, it does so only with the appetite; for, like the intellect, it moves only inasmuch as it represents an object of the appetite.
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823. Sic igitur apparet quod unum est movens, quod est appetibile; hoc enim et appetitum movet et est principium intellectus, quae duo ponebantur moventia.
823. Therefore, it is clear that there is ultimately one mover—the object of the appetite. For this both moves the appetite and is the starting point of the practical intellect—which two were asserted to be the movers.
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824. Et hoc rationabile est quod haec duo moventia reducantur in unum, quod est appetibile, quia, si ponebantur haec duo, intellectus et appetitus, esse moventia respectu eiusdem motus, cum unius effectus sit una causa propria, necesse est quod moveant haec duo secundum aliquam speciem communem; non autem dicendum quod appetitus moveat sub specie intellectus, sed magis e converso intellectus vel intelligilis <sub specie appetitus>, quia intellectus non invenitur movens sine appetitu, quia voluntas, secundum quam movet intellectus, est quidam appetitus
824. And it is reasonable that these two moving principles should be traced back to one thing, the object of appetite; for if there are two, intellect and appetite, that are posited as the movers of one and the same motion, they must move in virtue of some common species, since a single effect implies always a single proper cause. Now, it cannot be said that appetite moves under the intellect’s species, but rather the opposite, the intellect under the appetite’s species; for intellect is not found to be a mover without the appetite, for the will, according to which the intellect moves, is a sort of appetite.
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825. (et huius ratio assignatur in IX Metaphysicae, quia, cum ratio scientiae practicae se habeat ad opposita, non movet nisi determinetur ad unum per appetitum). Sed appetitus movet sine ratione, sicut patet in his quae moventur ex concupiscentia; concupiscentia enim est appetitus quidam. Exemplificat autem magis de concupiscentia quam de ira, quia ira habet aliquid rationis, non autem concupiscentia, ut probat philosophus in VII Ethicorum. Et sic patet quod duo moventia reducuntur ad unum, quod est appetibile.
825. The explanation of this, given in Metaphysics 9, is that, because the account of practical knowledge stands open to opposites, it does not initiate movement unless appetite determines it to one thing.1 But an appetite, on the other hand, does cause movement without reason, as we see in those moved by concupiscence, for concupiscence is a sort of appetite. He mentions this desire rather than anger because anger has something belonging to reason, whereas concupiscence does not, as he shows in Ethics 7.2 Clearly, then, the two movers are traced back to one, the object of appetite.
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826. Deinde cum dicit: intellectus quidem, assignat ex praemissis rationem cuiusdam accidentis circa motum vel actionem, ostendens scilicet quare in actionibus et motibus nostris erramus. Et dicit quod omnis intellectus est rectus. Quod intelligendum est de intellectu principiorum: non enim erramus circa prima principia in operabilibus, cuiusmodi sunt: nulli esse nocendum, non esse aliquid iniuste agendum, et similia, sicut nec erramus circa prima principia in speculativis; in his autem quae sunt post principia, si quidem recte consideramus, procedit ex rectitudine quae est circa prima principia, si autem a rectitudine declinamus, procedit ex errore qui accidit in ratiocinando. Sed appetitus et phantasia, quae etiam movent, sunt et cum rectitudine et sine rectitudine; et ideo in actionibus nostris contingit deficere a rectitudine secundum quod deficimus ab intellectu et ratione. Unde patet ex praemissis quod appetibile semper movet,
826. Next, at all understanding, then (433a26), he applies what has been said to a particular accidental factor in movement or action, explaining why we go amiss in our actions and movements. All understanding, he says, is right; this should be understood about the understanding of principles, for we never err in the understanding of the first principles in things that can be done; for example, no one should be harmed, nothing should be done unjustly, and so on. This is like the fact that we never err about the first principles in speculative things. But as for the consequences of these principles, if we consider them rightly, one proceeds based on the rectitude that surrounds the first principles, whereas if we deviate from that rectitude, one proceeds based on an error that happens in the reasoning. But appetite and imagination, which likewise cause motion, exist both with rectitude and without rectitude. This is why, in our actions, it is possible to deviate from rectitude insofar as we deviate from intellect and reason. Our previous conclusion stands, that the object of appetite is always what causes motion.
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827. hoc autem appetibile, est aut vere bonum, quando persistitur in iudicio recti intellectus, aut apparens bonum, quando declinatur a iudicio recti intellectus propter appetitum vel phantasiam; non autem omne bonum est appetibile et movens, sed bonum agibile, quod est bonum applicatum ad operationem. Et hoc contingit aliter se habere, sicut omnia quae actioni nostrae subduntur; unde bonum universale et necessarium in sua universalitate consideratum non movet. Manifestum est igitur quod potentia animae quae dicitur appetitus sit movens.
827. Now this object of appetite is either what is truly good, when it remains in the judgment of a correct understanding; or it is an apparent good, when appetite or imagination cause a deflection from that judgment. Not every good, however, is the object of appetite and a mover, but only the good that is able to be done, that is, a good as applied to action. And this is something that is able to be otherwise than it is, as are all things that are subject to our action; that is why the universal and necessary good, considered in its own universality, does not cause movement. Clearly, then, the power of the soul that is called “appetite” is the mover.
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828. Deinde cum dicit: dividentibus autem, excludit id quod antiqui dixerunt de distinctione partium motivarum animae, dicens quod dividentibus partes animae in rationalem, irascibilem et concupiscibilem, si ipsi intendant distinguere potentias animae ab invicem separatas, multo plures fient quam illi posuerunt, videlicet vegetabile, sensibile, intellectivum, consiliativum, et appetitivum (distinguit autem consiliativum ab intellectivo sicut in VI Ethicorum distinguitur rationativum, quod est contingentium, a scientifico, quod est necessariorum, et ea ratione quae ibi tangitur). Hae autem partes animae plus differunt ab invicem quam concupiscibile et irascibile, quae comprehenduntur sub appetitu sensitivo. Unde plures sunt partes quam ipsi ponant.
828. Then, at for those who divide (433a31), he rejects an old division of the motive parts of the soul into the rational, irascible, and concupiscible parts. If, he says, the intention is to enumerate the powers that are really distinct from each other, many others should have been included, namely, the vegetative, sensitive, intellectual, deliberative, and appetitive powers. (He distinguishes the deliberative power from the intellectual as, in Ethics 6, the reasoning power, which is about contingent things, is distinguished from the scientific, which is about necessary things, and for the reason that he touches on there.)1 All these parts of the soul differ from one another much more than the concupiscible and irascible, which are both included in the sensitive appetite. Hence, there are even more parts than they posited.
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829. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem appetitus, excludit quamdam obiectionem supra positam ad ostendendum quod appetitus non movet per hoc quod continentes non sequuntur appetitum; sed haec ratio solvitur quia in homine sunt contrarii appetitus quorum unum continentes sequuntur et alii repugnant. Dicit ergo quod, quia possunt fieri appetitus contrarii ad invicem, hoc contingit cum ratio concupiscentiae contrariatur, et fit hoc, id est accidit hoc, in habentibus sensum temporis, id est qui non solum cognoscunt quod in praesenti est, sed considerant praeteritum et futurum, quia intellectus quandoque ab aliquo concupiscibili retrahere iubet propter considerationem futuri, sicut cum febrienti ex iudicio intellectus videtur esse abstinendum a vino ne febris incalescat, sed concupiscentia incitat ad accipiendum propter ipsum iam, id est propter id quod in praesenti est: videtur enim quod in praesenti est delectabile, esse simpliciter delectabile et bonum, ex eo quod non consideratur futurum.
829. Next, at since appetites (433b5), he meets an objection already touched upon to show that appetite does not cause motion, namely, the continent do not follow their appetite.1 But this argument is resolved by the fact that in a man there are contrary appetites, of which the one the continent follow, and the rest they reject. He says, therefore, that since appetites do become contrary to one another, this happens when reason is contrary to concupiscence; and this occurs only in things that have a sense of time, that is, who are aware not only of the present moment but who consider the past and future as well. For sometimes intellect commands restraint from a certain desire on account of a consideration of what will happen in the future; thus a man with a fever, based on the judgment of his intellect, sees that he ought to abstain from drinking wine lest the fever increase. But desire prompts him to take things for the sake of what is right now, that is, in the present moment. For it seems that what is pleasant in the present is pleasant simply speaking, and good, because the future is not being considered.
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830. Deinde cum dicit: specie quidem igitur etc., ostendit ordinem motus. Et circa hoc tria facit:
830. Then, at the mover, therefore (433b10), he shows the order of the movements in question; and this, in three stages.
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primo ostendit quomodo moventia sint unum et quomodo plura;
First, he shows how the factors in movement are at once many and one.
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secundo quomodo ordinantur ad invicem, ibi: quoniam autem tria sunt;
Second, at since there are these three (433b13; [831]), he explains how they are ordered to each other.
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tertio determinat summarie de uno eorum quae ad motum requiruntur, ibi: nunc autem, ut in summa.
Third, at now, in summary (433b21; [321]), he briefly defines each of the factors on which movement depends.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, si moventia considerantur formaliter et secundum speciem, unum erit movens, scilicet appetibile vel appetitivum, quia inter omnia primum movens est appetibile; hic enim est movens non motum inquantum est imaginatum vel intellectum (manifestum est enim quod secunda moventia non movent nisi inquantum participant primum, unde omnia conveniunt in specie primi moventis). Quamvis autem omnia moventia sint unum secundum speciem primi moventis, tamen numero sunt plura.
First, then, he observes that if the movers are considered formally and according to their species, they will be one mover—namely, the object of appetite, or the appetite itself; for among all of them, the object of appetite is the first mover, for this is the unmoved mover, insofar as it is understood or imagined. (For it is manifest that the secondary movers do not cause motion except insofar as they share in the first, so they all as such come together in the species of the first mover.) And yet, though all the movers are one according to the species of the first mover, still numerically there are many.
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831. Deinde cum dicit: quoniam autem tria, assignat ordinem motus. Et dicit quod tria sunt quae inveniuntur in motu, unum quod est movens, et aliud est organum quo movens movet, et tertium est quod movetur;
831. Then, at since there are these three (433b13), he assigns the order of motion, and he interrelates three things found in movement: one is the mover, next is the organ by which it moves, and third is that which is moved.
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movens autem est duplex, unum quidem immobile et aliud quod est movens motum; in motu igitur animalis movens quod non movetur est bonum actuale, quod movet appetitum prout est intellectum vel imaginatum;
The mover is twofold: an immobile mover, and another that moves through being moved itself. In the case of animals, then, the unmoved mover is some good in action, which moves the appetite insofar as it is understood or imagined.
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sed movens motum est ipse appetitus, quia omne quod appetit inquantum appetit movetur, et ipsum appetere est quidam actus vel motus, prout motus est actus perfecti, sicut supra dictum est de operatione sensus et intellectus;
The mover that is moved is the appetite itself, for everything that desires is moved insofar as it desires, and the appetite itself is a certain act or movement, insofar as motion is the act of what is perfect, as was said above about the activity of sensing and understanding.
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quod autem movetur est animal;
What is moved is the animal itself.
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organum autem quo appetitus movet est aliquid corporeum, scilicet quod est primum organum motus. Et ideo de huiusmodi organis considerandum est in operationibus communibus animae et corporis (determinat enim de hoc in libro De causa motus animalium); in hoc enim libro intendit determinare de anima secundum se.
And the organ by which the appetite moves is a bodily part, that which is the primary organ of movement; hence it must be studied along with the activities common to body and soul and is, in fact, examined in the Movement of Animals.1 But in this book, he intends to determine about the soul in itself.
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832. Deinde cum dicit: nunc autem, ut in summa etc., summarie determinat de organo motus localis. Et dicit in summa quod primum movens organice oportet tale esse ut in eodem sit et principium et finis motus, sicut in quadam circulatione in qua est gibbosum et concavum, quorum unum est quasi finis et aliud quasi principium: nam concavum est sicut finis, gibbosum autem esse videtur sicut principium motus; secundum concavitatem enim contrahitur in seipso, secundum gibbositatem vero attenditur eius dilatatio, prout ab ipso fit principium motus et pulsus.
832. Next, at now, in summary (433b21), he briefly states his view on the organ of local motion. He says, in summary, that the primary organic mover must be such that the principle and end of the movement are in the same thing, as if in a certain circulation, in which there is the convex and the concave, of which one is as the end and the other is as the beginning. For the concave is as its end, but the convex seems to be like the beginning of motion; for it is according to the concavity that it is contracted into itself, while according to its convexity, there is expansion, as from itself there is a beginning of motion and a pushing.
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833. Et quia in ipso est principium motus et finis, principium autem motus oportet esse immobile in unoquoque motu, sicut cum movetur manus quiescit brachium et cum movetur brachium quiescit humerus, et sic omnis motus ab aliquo immobili procedit,
833. Now, the starting point and end of the movement are in this, but the principle in every motion whatsoever must be immobile; for example, while the hand is moving, the arm is at rest, and while the arm moves, the shoulder is at rest—as all movement must proceed from something immobile.
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oportet quod in primo organo motus quod est cor sit aliquid quiescens inquantum est principium motus et aliud quod movetur inquantum motus terminatur ad ipsum; et haec duo in ipso, scilicet quiescens et motum, sunt diversa ratione, sed subiecto et magnitudine sunt ab invicem inseparabilia.
Therefore in that first organ of motion, which is the heart, there must be something at rest inasmuch as it is a principle of motion, and something else that is moved inasmuch as motion is terminated in it. However, these two things in the organ, the resting and the moved, though distinct in account, are in the subject and in magnitude inseparable from each other.
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834. Et quod oporteat ibi esse principium motus et finis et per consequens quiescens et mobile, manifestum est ex hoc quod omnis motus animalis componitur ex pulsu et tractu; in pulsu autem id quod est movens est tantum principium motus, quia pellens elongat a se id quod pellitur; sed in tractu id quod movet est terminus motus, quia trahens ad se movet id quod trahitur; et propter hoc oportet quod primum organum motus localis in animali sit et ut principium motus et ut terminus
834. And that the organ must be both starting point and end (and therefore both resting and mobile) is clear from the fact that all animal movement is composed of pushing and pulling. In pushing, what is the mover is only the starting point of the motion, since the impelling agent thrusts from itself what is impelled. But in pulling, what is the mover is the term of the motion, for what is pulled it pulls to itself. Thus the first organ of local motion in animals must be at once both a starting point and a term.
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835. et ideo oportet quod sit in eo aliquid manens et quod tamen hinc incipiat motus, sicut apparet in motu circulari: nam corpus quod circulariter movetur propter immobilitatem centri et polorum non mutat totaliter locum, nisi forte ratione, sed secundum totum manet in loco eodem secundum subiectum, partes autem variant locum subiecto et non ratione tantum; sic etiam est in motu cordis: nam cor in eadem parte corporis fixum manet, sed movetur secundum dilatationem et constrictionem, ut causet motum pulsus et tractus; et sic quodammodo est mobile et quodammodo quiescens.
835. So there must be in it something that stays still and yet thereby initiates motion. And in this it resembles circular movement: for a body revolving in a circle does not as a whole change place (except maybe in account), on account of the immobility of the center and the poles. As a whole it remains in the same place in subject, but its parts are changing their places in subject, and not only in account. And so it is with the motion of the heart: it remains fixed in the same part of the body, while it dilates and contracts and so gives rise to movements of pushing and pulling. Thus it is, in a sense, both resting and moving.
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L. 10 (Γ.10–11, 433b27–434a21)The principles of movement in living beings continued
Nihil motivum suiipsius esse sine phantasia ostendit; hominem autem seipsum movere ratione particulari practica exponit
The principles of movement in living beings continued
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Omnino quidem igitur, sicut predictum est, inquantum appetitivum animal, sic ipsius motivum est; appetitivum autem non sine phantasia, phantasia autem omnis aut rationalis aut sensibilis est. Hac quidem igitur et alia animalia participant.
Generally, then, all animals have the power of self-movement inasmuch as they have appetite, as we have said. But there is never appetite apart from imagination; and all imagination is either rational or sensitive. It is in the latter, then, that other animals also participate.
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Considerandum autem et de inperfectis, quid movens est, quibus tactus solum inest sensus, utrum contingat phantasiam inesse his, aut non, et concupiscentiam. Videtur enim laetitia et tristitia inesse, si autem haec, et concupiscentiam necesse. Phantasia autem quomodo utique inerit? Aut sicut moventur indeterminatae, et haec insunt quidem, indeterminatae autem insunt.
Now, we must consider the mover within those incomplete animals in which there exists no sense but touch, and whether or not they have imagination and desire. For pain and pleasure do seem to be present in them; and if these, then, necessarily, desire as well. But how can there be imagination in them? It may be that as they are moved indeterminately, so these things are present indeed in them, but only indeterminately.
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Sensibilis quidem igitur phantasia, sicut dictum est, et aliis animalibus inest, deliberativa autem in rationabilibus: utrum enim aget hoc aut hoc, iam rationis est opus, et necesse uno mensurare; maius enim imitatur, quare potest unum ex pluribus phantasmatibus facere. Et causa haec eius quod opinionem non putari habere, quoniam eam quae ex sillogismo non habet, haec autem illam. Propter quod deliberativum non habet appetitus.
Sensitive imagination, then, exists also in other animals, as we have said, but the deliberative is only in rational beings. For to deliberate whether to do this or that is the work of reason, and it is necessary to measure by just one thing, for it imitates the better, so it can form several phantasms into a unity. And this is why the animals are thought not to have opinion, since they lack that which derives from syllogism, but these ones do have that. For this reason, the appetite is without deliberation.
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Vincit autem aliquando et movet deliberationem, aliquando autem movet se ipsum, sicut sphaera, appetitus appetitum, cum in continentia1 fuerit. Natura autem semper quae sursum principalior est et movet, ut tribus lationibus iam moveatur.
Appetite, however, sometimes overcomes and moves deliberation. But sometimes it moves itself, like the sphere, an appetite moving an appetite, when this happens in self-control. But by nature what is above is always more fundamental and moves the lower such that it is moved with three motions.
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Scientificum autem non movet, sed manet. Quoniam autem haec quidem universalis existimatio et ratio, alia vero particularis (haec quidem enim dicit quod oportet talem tale agere, haec autem quod hoc quidem tale et ego talis),
Now, the scientific power does not cause movement, but remains at rest. But this judgment and reason is of the universal, while the other is of the particular—for the former says that such a one should do such a thing, while the latter says that this is such an action and I am such a man.
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iam haec movet opinio, non quae universalis; aut utraque, sed haec quidem quiescens magis, haec autem non.
Therefore right away the latter opinion moves one, not the universal—or both together; rather, the one as being more at rest, the other less so.
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836. Omnino quidem igitur, sicut predictum est, etc. Postquam philosophus determinavit de principio motivo secundum motum localem in communi et secundum se, nunc determinat de ipso per comparationem ad diversa genera animalium. Et circa hoc tria facit:
836. Generally then, all animals (433b27). The Philosopher now passes from a general consideration of the principle of local movement in common and in itself to viewing it in relation to different genera of animals. And he does three things here.
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primo ostendit quid sit commune omnibus animalibus participantibus motum;
First, he states what is common to all animals that move;
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secundo quomodo principium motivum inveniatur in animalibus imperfectis, ibi: considerandum autem et de imperfectis etc.;
second, at now, we must consider (433b31; [838]), he discusses the motive-principle of incomplete animals;
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tertio ostendit quomodo hoc principium motus sit in animali perfectissimo, quod est homo, differenter ab aliis animalibus, ibi: sensibilis quidem igitur phantasia etc.
and third, at sensitive imagination (434a5; [840]), he discusses the principle of motion of the most complete animal, man, in whom this principle exists in a unique way.
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Dicit ergo primo quod omne animal, inquantum est appetitivum, sic est sui ipsius motivum (nam appetitus est causa propria motus); sed appetitivum non est sine phantasia, quae vel est rationalis vel sensibilis. Sensibili autem phantasia alia animalia ab homine participant, non autem phantasia rationali.
First, then, he observes that all animals, inasmuch as they have appetite, have the power of self-movement; for appetite is the proper cause of movement. But there is never appetite apart from imagination, either rational or sensitive; and while other animals participate in the sensitive imagination, rational imagination is in man alone.
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837. Considerandum autem quod, sicut supra sub intelligentia phantasiam comprehendit, ita etiam nunc phantasiam usque ad intellectum extendit, sequens nominis rationem: nam phantasia apparitio quaedam est, apparet autem aliquid et secundum sensum et secundum rationem; phantasia etiam habet suam operationem in absentia sensibilium, sicut et ratio et intellectus.
837. Note, however, that, just as Aristotle has included imagination under “intellect,” so now he extends “imagination” to the intellect, following the account of the term itself.1 For imagination is a sort of appearance; and something is apparent both according to sense and according to reason. Besides, imagination, like reason or intellect, has its own activity in the absence of exterior sense-objects.
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838. Deinde cum dicit: considerandum autem ostendit quid sit principium motus in animalibus imperfectis (et dicuntur animalia imperfecta quibus inest solum sensus tactus). Et dicit quod considerandum est quid moveat ea, utrum scilicet sit in eis phantasia et concupiscentia, vel non. Videtur autem quod in eis sit concupiscentia, quia in eis videtur esse laetitia et tristitia (retrahunt enim se cum ab aliquo nocivo tanguntur et aperiunt se et extendunt in id quod est eis conveniens, quod non fieret nisi esset in eis dolor et delectatio), si autem haec sunt in eis, necessarium est quod etiam eis insit concupiscentia: ex sensu enim delectationis sequitur concupiscentia. Sed, cum concupiscentia non sit sine phantasia,
838. Then, at now, we must consider (433b31), he points to the principle of motion in the incomplete animals (for he calls “incomplete” the animals in which there exists no sense but touch). We must consider, he says, what it is that moves these animals: is it imagination and desire or not? They seem indeed to have desires, for they seem to feel pleasure and pain: they shrink back when touched by things that harm them but open out and extend themselves towards things that suit them, which cannot happen to them without pain and pleasure. And if these, then, are present in them, it is necessary that desire is present in them. For desire follows from a sense of pleasure. But pleasure is not without imagination.
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839. restat quaerendum quomodo sit in eis phantasia? Et respondet quod, sicut moventur, ita inest huiusmodi animalibus et phantasia et concupiscentia; moventur autem non determinate quasi intendentes aliquem locum determinate in suo motu, sicut accidit in animalibus quae moventur motu processivo, quae imaginantur aliquid distans et illud concupiscunt et ad illud moventur; sed huiusmodi animalia imperfecta non imaginantur aliquid distans, quia nihil imaginantur nisi apud praesentiam sensibilis, sed, cum laeduntur, imaginantur illud ut nocivum et retrahunt se, et, cum delectantur, effundunt se super illud et applicant se illi; et sic in eis est phantasia et concupiscentia indeterminata, inquantum imaginantur et concupiscunt aliquid ut conveniens, non autem ut hoc vel illud aut hic vel ibi, sed habent confusam imaginationem et concupiscentiam.
839. So, then, how is imagination in them? He answers that, just as they are moved, so too is imagination and desire present in these animals. But they do not move in a determinate way, as though intending to arrive at any determinate place, as do the animals that move from one place to another, which latter imagine something at a distance, and so desire it and move toward it. But such incomplete animals do not imagine anything at a distance, since they imagine only at the presence of a sense-object. Rather, when they are hurt, they imagine what is harmful and draw back, and when they feel pleasure, they reach out to it and cling to it. And in this way both imagination and desire in them are indeterminate, inasmuch as they imagine and desire something as suitable, but not as this or that, or as here or there; rather, they have a confused imagination and desire.
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840. Deinde cum dicit: sensibilis quidem igitur, ostendit quomodo principium motivum sit in hominibus. Et circa hoc tria facit:
840. Next, at sensitive imagination (434a5), he points out the motive-principle in man; and this, in three stages.
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primo ostendit quomodo principium movens in hominibus est ratio deliberans;
First, he shows how this moving principle is the deliberative reason;
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secundo quomodo aliquando deliberatio rationis per appetitum vincitur, ibi: vincit autem aliquando etc.;
next, at appetite, however, sometimes overcomes (434a12; [843]), how it is sometimes overcome by desire;
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tertio ostendit quae ratio sit movens, ibi: scientificum autem non movet etc.
and third, at now, the scientific power (434a16; [845]), he show of what reason he is speaking here.
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Dicit ergo primo quod phantasia sensibilis, ut ex dictis patet, est etiam in aliis animalibus, sed illa quae est per deliberationem est tantum in rationabilibus, quia considerare utrum hoc sit agendum aut hoc, quod est deliberare, est opus rationis,
First, then, he says that while sensitive imagination exists also in other animals, as is clear from what he said above, imagination based on deliberation is only in rational animals; for to consider whether this or that should be done, which is to deliberate, is the work of reason.1
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841. et in tali consideratione necesse est accipere aliquam unam regulam vel finem, vel aliquid huiusmodi, ad quod mensuretur quid sit magis agendum; manifestum est enim quod homo imitatur, id est desiderat, id quod est magis in bonitate, id est id quod est melius; melius autem semper diiudicamus aliqua mensura, et ita oportet accipere aliquam mensuram in deliberando quid magis sit agendum et hoc est medium, ex quo ratio practica syllogizat quid sit eligendum; unde manifestum est quod ratio deliberans potest ex pluribus phantasmatibus unum facere, scilicet ex tribus quorum unum praeeligitur alteri et tertium est quasi mensura qua praeelegitur.
841. And in such consideration it is necessary to take some sort of rule or end, or something like this, by which to measure what most needs to be done. Clearly, a man will imitate, that is, desire, that which is greater in goodness (that is, what is better); moreover, we always judge the better by a certain measure. We need, therefore, to receive a certain measure in deliberating what one should do. And this is the middle term based on which practical reason syllogizes about what one should choose. It follows that reason, deliberating, can form several phantasms into a unity—three, to be precise; for one object is preferred to another, and a third is the measure whereby one prefers it.
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842. Et haec est causa quare animalia non habent opinionem licet habeant phantasiam, quia non possunt uti syllogismo per quem unum praeeligant alteri, sed deliberatio rationis habet illam, scilicet phantasiam, alias non faceret ex pluribus phantasmatibus unum. Et inde est quod appetitus inferior, qui sequitur phantasiam, non habet deliberationem, sed absque deliberatione movetur ad concupiscendum vel irascendum, quia scilicet sequitur phantasiam sensibilem.
842. And this is why animals have no opinions, though they have imagination. For they cannot use a syllogism, whereby they might prefer one thing to another. But the deliberation of reason has that, that is, imagination, otherwise it would not make one thing from many phantasms. And this is why the lower appetite, which follows from imagination, is without deliberation, rather, it is moved into desire or repulsion without deliberation because it follows the sensitive imagination.
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843. Deinde cum dicit: vincit autem, ostendit quomodo deliberatio rationis vincatur ab appetitu inferiori. Et dicit quod <aliquando> appetitus inferior, qui est sine deliberatione, vincit deliberationem et removet hominem ab eo quod deliberavit, aliquando autem e converso appetitus movet appetitum, scilicet superior qui est rationis deliberantis eum qui est phantasiae sensibilis, sicut in corporibus caelestibus sphaera superior movet inferiorem, quod accidit cum aliquis continens fuerit: continentis enim est per deliberationem rationis vincere impetum passiones.
843. Next, at appetite, however, sometimes (434a12), he explains how the deliberation of reason is overcome by the lower appetite. And he says that sometimes a lower appetite, which occurs without deliberation, overcomes deliberation and draws a man away from that which he deliberated. But sometimes, conversely, an appetite moves an appetite, that is, the higher appetite, which belongs to the deliberating reason, moves the appetite that belongs to sensible imagination, like in heavenly bodies the higher sphere moves the lower. This happens when someone is self-controlled; for it belongs to the self-controlled to overcome the impulse of passions through the deliberation of reason.
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844. Et iste est naturalis ordo ut appetitus superior moveat inferiorem, quia etiam in corporibus caelestibus naturaliter sphaera superior principalior est et movet inferiorem, ita quod inferior moveatur tribus motibus localibus
844. And such is the natural order that the higher appetite moves the lower. For even in the heavenly bodies the higher sphere naturally is more fundamental and moves the lower, and does so in such a way that the lower is moved with three local motions.
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(sicut sphaera Saturni movetur et motu diurno, qui est super polos mundi, et motu contrario, qui est super polos zodiaci, et praeter hoc motu proprio);
For example, the sphere of Saturn is moved with the daily motion, which is the motion about the poles of the universe; and with a contrary motion, which is about the poles of the zodiac; and besides this, with its own proper motion.
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et similiter appetitus inferior, etsi aliquid de motu proprio retineat, movetur tamen naturali ordine motu appetitus superioris et motu rationis deliberantis. Si autem e converso accidat quod appetitus superior transmoveatur ab inferiori, est praeter ordinem naturalem; unde et hoc facit peccatum in moribus, sicut monstra sunt peccata in natura.
Likewise, the lower appetite, even if it retains something of its own proper movement, is nevertheless in the natural order moved by the motion of a higher appetite and also by the movement of rational deliberation. But if the converse takes place, and the higher appetite is in fact moved by the lower, this is outside the natural order; and hence, this constitutes a flaw in moral conduct, just as deformed births are flaws in nature.
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845. Deinde cum dicit: scientificum autem etc., ostendit quae ratio sit movens. Et primo sciendum est quod ratio speculativa, quam appellat scientificum, non movet, sed in quiete est, quia nihil dicit de imitabili vel fugiendo, ut supra dictum est. Ratio autem practica quaedam est universalis et quaedam particularis (universalis quidem sicut quae dicit quod oportet talem tale agere, sicut quod oportet filium honorare parentem; ratio autem particularis, quod hoc quidem tale et ego talis, puta quod ego filius hunc honorem nunc debeo exhibere parenti);
845. Then, at now, the scientific power (434a16), he explains which reason it is that moves. First, note that the speculative reason, here called “scientific,” does not cause movement; rather, this is at rest, since it says nothing about what should be imitated or fled, as we have seen.1 Practical reason, however, is in a certain way of the universal, but in a certain way of the particular. It is of the universal as what says that such a one should do such a thing, for example, that a child should honor his parent. But the reason is of the particular when it says that this is such an action and I am such a man, for example, that I, a son, ought now to show my parent this honor.
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846. haec iam opinio movet, non autem illa quae est universalis; aut si utraque movet, sed illa quae est universalis movet ut causa prima et quiescens, particularis autem ut causa proxima et quodammodo motui applicata: nam operationes et motus in particularibus sunt, unde oportet, ad hoc quod motus sequatur, quod opinio universalis ad particularia applicetur; et propter hoc etiam peccatum in actionibus accidit quando opinio in particulari operabili corrumpitur propter aliquam delectationem vel aliquam aliam passionem, quae tamen opinionem universalem non corrumpit.
846. Therefore right away the latter opinion moves one, not the opinion that is universal—or if both together move one, rather, that which is universal moves one as a first cause and as at rest, whereas the particular opinion moves one as a proximate cause and as applied to the movement. For acts and movements are in particulars, and if any movement is actually to take place, the universal opinion must be applied to particulars. On account of this, the commission of a sinful action happens when one’s opinion in the particular thing to be done is corrupted by some pleasure or some other passion that, nevertheless, does not corrupt the universal opinion.
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L. 11 (Γ.12, 434a22–435a10)Sensation and life: touch as fundamental sense
Quodlibet vivens, quamdiu vivit, vegetativam animam necessario habere ostendit, non autem sensum, nisi passive, ut plantas: utroque autem modo animalia tantum sensum habere, et ex illis sensum tactus et gustus, qui sensus fiunt in recipiendo, non autem emittendo
Sensation and life: touch as fundamental sense
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Vegetabilem quidem igitur animam necesse est habere omne quodcumque vivit et animam habet, a generatione usque ad corruptionem. Necesse est enim quod generatur augmentum habere et statum et detrimentum; haec autem sine alimento inpossibile; necesse igitur inesse vegetabilem potentiam in omnibus generatis et corruptibilibus.
All things that live and have soul, therefore, must have the vegetative soul; and this, from generation to corruption. For everything generated must pass through the stages of growth, maturity, and decline; and this is impossible without food. Of necessity, then, a vegetative power is found in all that is born and dies.
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Sensum autem non necesse in omnibus viventibus: neque enim quorum corpus simplex contingit haberet tactum (neque sine hoc possibile esse nullum animal); neque quaecumque non susceptiva specierum sine materia.
Sensation, however, is not necessarily found in everything that lives. For things whose bodies are simple cannot even have touch, without which no animal can exist at all; nor can whatever is unable to receive species without matter.
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Animal autem necesse sensum habere, si nihil frustra facit natura. Propter enim aliquid omnia quae sunt natura subsistunt, aut concidentia sunt eorum quae sunt propter aliquid. Si igitur omne processivum corpus non habet sensum, corrumpetur utique et ad finem non utique veniet qui est naturae opus. Quomodo enim aletur? Manentibus quidem enim existit quod unde nata sunt.
But if nature does nothing in vain, all animals are sensitive. For all that exist by their nature subsist for the sake of something or accompany things that are for the sake of something. Therefore if every body that is able to move about lacked sensation, it would soon be destroyed and would never attain its end, which is the work of nature. For how would it be nourished? For animals that stay still indeed find nourishment in that out of which they are produced.
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Non potest autem corpus habere quidem animam et intellectum discretivum, sensum autem non habere, non mansivum existens, generabile autem, at vero neque ingenerabile. Quare enim non habebit? Aut enim animae melius aut corpori, nunc autem neutrum est: haec quidem enim non magis intelliget, hoc autem nihil erit magis propter illud. Nullum ergo habet animam corpus non manens sine sensu.
But a body that is generated, not stationary, cannot possess a soul and intellectual discernment and yet not have sensation; nor indeed can an ungenerated one. For why should it not have it? For the good of either the soul or the body. But neither, surely. For the one would not then understand better nor would the other benefit on account of it. No mobile body, then, has a soul without sensation.
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At vero, si sensum habet, necesse est corpus esse aut simplex aut mixtum, impossibile autem est simplex: tactum enim non haberet. Est autem necesse hunc habere.
But if it has sensation, the body must be either simple or mixed. It cannot, however, be simple; for then it would lack the sense of touch, and it must have this sense.
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Hoc autem ex his manifestum. Quoniam enim animal corpus animatum est, corpus autem omne tangibile, tangibile autem quod sensibile tactu, necesse et animalis corpus tactivum esse, si debet salvari animal. Alii enim sensus per altera sentiunt, ut olfactus, visus, auditus; tactum autem nisi habeat sensum, non poterit haec quidem fugere, illa vero accipere; si vero hoc, impossibile erit salvari animal.
This is evident from these considerations. For an animal is an ensouled body, and every body is tangible, and the tangible is what is sensible to touch; therefore the animal’s body must be able to touch if the animal is to survive. For the other senses sense through an extraneous medium, e.g., smell, sight, hearing. But if it had no sense of touch, it could not avoid certain things and seize upon others; and thus, the animal could not preserve itself.
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Propter quod et gustus est sicut tactus quidam: alimenti enim, alimentum autem corpus tangi possibile. Sonus autem et color et odor non alunt, neque faciunt augmentum neque detrimentum. Quare et gustum necesse est tactum esse quendam, quia tangibilis et vegetativi sensus est.
This is why even taste is as a certain touch; for it relates to food, and food is a tangible body. But sounds and colors and scents do not nourish or contribute to growth or decay. Taste must also, then, be a certain touch, being a sense of the tangible and the vegetative.
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Hii quidem igitur necessarii sunt animali, quo et manifestum quod non possibile sine tactu animal esse. Alii autem propter bonum, et generi animalium iam non cuicumque, sed quibusdam, ut processivo, necesse inesse: si enim debet salvari, non solum oportet tactum sentire, sed et de longe.
These senses then are necessary to the animal, so it is plain that no animal can exist without touch. The others, however, exist for the sake of some good; and then not in every genus of animal, but in some, namely, in those that need to move from place to place. For if such an animal is to survive it must sense not only what is in contact with it, but also what is afar.
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Hoc autem erit, si per medium sensitivum fuerit, eo quod illud quidem a sensibili patiatur et moveatur, ipsum autem ab illo.
And this will happen, if it senses through a medium, this being acted upon and moved by the sense-object, and the animal itself by it.
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Sicut enim movens secundum locum usque alicubi permutare facit, et depellens alterum facit ut pellat, et est per medium motus, et primum quidem movens depellit et non depellitur, ultimum autem solum depellitur non depellens, medium autem utraque, multa autem media, sic in alteratione, praeter quod unum manens in eodem loco alterat,
For just as a thing moving locally operates till it effects a change toward some destination, and, pushing something else, it makes the other push, and this is motion through the intermediate, such that the first mover pushes without being pushed, and the last is only pushed without pushing anything, while the intermediary is both (or the many intermediaries), so it is with the alteration in question, except that what causes the alteration remains in the same place.
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ut si in ceram tinxerit aliquis, usque ad id mata est usquequo tinxit; lapis autem nihil, sed aqua usque procul; aer autem ad plurimum movetur et facit et patitur, si maneat et unus sit. Unde et de repercussione est melius quam visum egredientem repercuti aerem pati a figura et colore usquequo quidem sit unus, in levi autem est unus; propter quod iterum hic visum movebit, sicut utique si in ceram sigillum ingrederetur usque ad finem.
For example, if one dips an object into wax, the wax moves to the extent that the object enters it; whereas a stone is not moved at all, but water a long way, and air most of all, giving and receiving motion, so long as it remains a unity. Hence, even as regards reflection, it is better to say that the air is acted upon by shape and color, so long as it retains unity, than to say that the sight proceeds out and is reflected back. On a smooth surface air has unity, and so in turn, moves the sight, as if a signet ring were to sink into and right through wax.
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847. Vegetabilem quidem igitur animam. Postquam philosophus determinavit de singulis partibus animae, hic ostendit quomodo ordinantur ad invicem.
847. All things that live and have soul (434a22). After discussing the various parts of the soul in turn, the Philosopher now shows how they are ordered to each other:
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Et primo ostendit quod necesse est vegetabilem partem animae in omnibus viventibus inveniri;
first, he explains that the vegetative part is necessary to all animate beings;
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secundo ostendit quod sensitiva non est in omnibus, sed in animalibus, ibi: sensum autem non necesse.
second, at sensation, however, is not necessarily found (434a27; [849]), he shows that the sensitive is not in all, but only in animals.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, ex his quae supra de partibus animae determinata sunt concludens, quod omne quod vivit et per consequens quamcumque partem animae habens, necesse est quod habeat vegetabilem animam, a principio suae generationis usque ad suam corruptionem; ex quo innuit hoc intelligendum esse in viventibus quae generantur et corrumpuntur.
In the light, then, of his previous conclusions about the parts of the soul,1 he observes, first, that all things that live, and consequently have any part in soul, must, from the first moment of their generation until their final corruption, have the vegetative soul; thereby he implies that he means the living things that are generated and corrupted.
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848. Hoc autem probat sic, quia necesse est quod omne vivens quod generatur habeat augmentum et statum et detrimentum; sed haec non possunt accidere sine alimento, quia tempore augmenti oportet quod plus de alimento convertatur quam sufficiat ad conservationem praeexistentis magnitudinis, tempore autem status aequaliter, sed tempore diminutionis minus; cum igitur uti alimento pertineat ad partem vegetabilem, necesse est quod haec pars animae sit in omnibus viventibus quae generantur et corrumpuntur. Et sic patet ordo istius partis animae ad alias animae partes, quia omnes aliae istam praesupponunt.
848. And he proves the point thus. Everything living and generated must pass through the stages of growth, maturity, and decline. And these cannot happen without food. For the time of growth requires that more food is being absorbed by a subject than is needed to maintain its existing bulk; the time of maturity implies a state of balance; but the time of decline implies a state of less. Since, then, to make use of food pertains to the vegetative part, this part of the soul of necessity is in all living things that are generated and corrupted. And in this way the order of this part of the soul to the other parts of the soul is evident, for all the others presuppose it.
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849. Deinde cum dicit: sensum autem non necesse, ostendit quomodo se habeat pars sensitiva ad viventia.
849. Then, at sensation, however, is not necessarily found (434a27), he shows how the sensitive part is related to living things:
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Et primo ostendit quod non est in omnibus viventibus;
and first, that it is not found in all of them;
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secundo ostendit in quibus viventibus sit, ibi: animal autem necesse sensum etc.
second, at but if nature does nothing in vain, animals must have sensation (434a30; [851]), where it is found.
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Dicit ergo primo quod non est necessarium quod omnia viventia habeant sensum, quia sensus tactus (sine quo nullus alius sensus esse potest, et per consequens neque aliquod animal cuius ratio perficitur ex hoc quod habet sensum) non potest esse in aliquo corpore simplici, quia oportet organum sensus tactus esse in quadam medietate inter contraria, ut supra ostensum est, quod nulli corpori simplici convenit, cum in corporibus simplicibus, id est in elementis, sint excellentiae qualitatum tangibilium, puta in igne excellentia calidi, in aqua frigidi.
First, then, he remarks that it is not necessary that all living things have sensation, because the sense of touch, without which no other sense can exist (and consequently, neither can any animal, the very account of which is completed from the fact that it has sense, exist without touch), cannot exist in any simple body; for the sense-organ of touch requires (as we have seen) a sort of mean of contrary qualities; hence, it cannot exist in simple bodies, that is, in the elements, which have an excellence of tangible qualities—as an excellence of heat in fire or of cold in water.1
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850. Similiter etiam quaecumque non sunt susceptiva specierum sine materia non habent sensum: nam sensus est susceptivus specierum sine materia, ut supra dictum est; sunt autem quaedam viventia, scilicet plantae, quae sunt propinqua corporibus simplicibus propter eorum terrestreitatem et non recipiunt species sensibilium nisi per materialem immutationem. Non ergo omnia viventia habent sensum.
850. Similarly, whatever is unable to receive species without matter cannot sense; for the sense is receptive of species without matter, as was said above.1 Now, there are some living things, that is, plants, that are near neighbors to the simple bodies because in them the earthy element predominates, and they do not receive the species of sensible things, except with a material modification. Not all living things, therefore, are sensitive.
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851. Deinde cum dicit: animal autem necesse, ostendit quod omnia animalia habent sensum. Et circa hoc duo facit:
851. Then, at but if nature (434a30), he shows that all animals have sensation. And regarding this, he does two things.
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primo ostendit hoc de animalibus quae moventur motu processivo;
First, he shows this with regard to animals that can move from place to place;
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secundo simpliciter de omnibus animalibus, ibi: at vero etc.
second, with regard to all animals without exception, at but if it has sensation (434b8; [858]).
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Circa primum duo facit:
As regards the first, he does two things:
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primo ostendit propositum;
he first proves his point;
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secundo excludit quiddam per quod posset suae rationi obviari, ibi: non potest autem corpus.
second, at but a body (434b3; [854]), he refutes a possible objection.
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Dicit ergo primo quod necesse est quod animal sensum habeat. Ad quod probandum proponit primo quod natura nihil facit frustra, quia omnia quae sunt in natura sunt propter aliquid (natura enim agit propter finem), vel sunt concidentia eorum quae sunt propter aliquid, id est proveniunt ex necessitate ex his quae propter aliquid sunt; sicut natura facit membra propter aliquas operationes,
To prove that all animals are sensitive, he assumes as a principle that nature does nothing in vain, for all that exist in nature exist for the sake of something (since nature acts for an end) or accompany things that are for the sake of something, that is, they arise of necessity from those things that are for the sake of something; for example, nature makes organs for the sake of certain activities.
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sed ex hoc quod membra sunt talis dispositionis sequitur quod habeant aliqua accidentia sicut quod habeant pilositates quasdam vel colores aut corruptiones quae non sunt propter finem sed magis proveniunt ex necessitate materiae; sic igitur, cum natura operetur propter aliquid, si res naturalis non posset pervenire ad finem quem natura intendit, essent frustra.
But from the fact that the organs are of a certain disposition it follows that they have certain accidents, for example, they have certain hairs or colors, or even corruptions that are not for the sake of an end but rather arise from a necessity of the matter. In this way, then, since nature acts for an end, if the natural things cannot reach the end that nature intends, it would be pointless.
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852. Sed natura fecit corpus processivum, id est animalis quod potest moveri motu processivo, sic organizatum et dispositum propter motum et ut per motum ulterius consequeretur alimentum per quod conservaretur in esse; hoc autem non posset esse si non haberet sensum, quia non discerneret corruptiva quae possent ei obviare et sic corrumperetur et non perveniret ad finem quem natura intendit, ut scilicet conservetur per alimentum quod ex motu acquirit. Quomodo enim aleretur nisi quaereret alimentum per motum?
852. But nature has made the body that is able to move about, that is, that of the animal that can move with a progressive movement, organized and disposed in such a way for the sake of the motion, and so that by that motion it might find food to preserve it in being. But this could not be if it did not have sensation, since then it would not discern the corruptive things that it could meet and thereby it would be destroyed and it would not reach the end that nature intends, that is, to preserve it through the food that it acquires from its motion. For how would they be nourished, if they could not seek food through movement?
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853. Nec est instantia de animalibus immobilibus, quia animalibus manentibus, id est immobilibus, existit adiunctum illud unde nata sunt nutriri, unde non oportet quod a remotis quaerant. Manifestum est igitur quod, si corpora processiva non haberent sensum, non possent consequi finem ad quem natura ordinavit et ita essent frustra, quod est inconveniens.
853. Nor is the case of immobile animals, since these animals stay still (that is, that are immobile) a problem, for they are joined to nourishment in the substance from which they are produced; thus, they do not have to seek it at a distance. Clearly then, if mobile animal bodies lacked sensation, they could not reach the end for which nature has ordered them, and thus they would exist in vain, which is incongruous.
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854. Deinde cum dicit: non potest autem corpus, excludit quiddam per quod posse videtur obviari rationi praedictae. Posset enim aliquis dicere quod corpus processivum potest pervenire ad finem intentum a natura discernendo corruptiva per intellectum, etiam si non habeat sensum. Sed hoc excludit dicens quod corpus non existens mansivum, sed processivum, non potest habere animam et intellectum discernentem nociva ita quod non habeat sensum, neque si sit generabile neque si sit ingenerabile. Et de generabili quidem ostensum est: nam viventia generabilia habentia intellectum sunt tantum homines, intellectus autem humanus indiget sensu, ut supra ostensum est;
854. Next, at but a body (434b3), he removes a possible objection. It might be suggested that some moving bodies could reach the end intended by their nature by discerning corruptive things by means of their intellect, even if they lacked sensation. But he rejects this, saying that the body not having a stationary existence, but a progressive one, cannot possess a soul and intellectual discernment of harmful things in such a way that it would not have sense, whether it be generated or ungenerated. The point has been proved with regard to generated animals, for the only living things that come into being by generation and are endowed with intellect are human beings, and the human intellect needs sensation, as we have seen.1
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855. sed quod dicit quod neque illud quod est ingenerabile habet intellectum sine sensu, videtur esse falsum secundum opinionem Aristotelis: nam corpora caelestia, quae ponit esse animata, habent de partibus animae intellectum, non autem sensum, cum sint corpora uniformia non habentia distinctionem in organis quae requiritur ad sensum. Unde quidam sic exponunt ut ibi terminetur sententia ubi dicit: generabile autem, ut sit sensus quod nullum corpus non manens non potest habere intellectum sine sensu, dummodo sit generabile. Sed quod subdit: at vero neque ingenerabile, est principium alterius sententiae, ac si dicat quod hoc quod dictum est de corpore generabili non sic se habet circa corpus ingenerabile, ut scilicet non possit habere intellectum sine sensu.
855. But his rejection of the suggestion that intellect might exist without sense in non-generated living things seems false even according to Aristotle’s own opinion. For he asserts that the heavenly bodies are both ensouled and, among the parts of the soul, they have intellect but not sensation, since their bodies are uniform, without the distinction in organs that is required for sensation. Hence, some commentators make the sentence end at not have sensation; and its meaning they take to be that no mobile body can have intellect without sensation, provided that it is a generated body. And what follows—at nor indeed can an ungenerated—they take as the beginning of a new sentence, meaning that the case of a non-generated body is different from that of a generated body, namely, that it cannot have intellect without sensation.
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856. Et hoc quod subdit: quare enim non habebit, intelligendum est relative magis quam interrogative, ut sit sensus quod causa quare corpus ingenerabile, scilicet corpus caeleste, non habet sensum licet habeat intellectum, est ista, quia si haberet sensum, aut hoc esset ut exinde esset aliquid melius animae corporis caelestis aut <ut> exinde aliquid esset melius corpori caelesti; sed neutrum horum est, quia anima corporis caelestis non magis intelligeret propter sensum quam sine sensu (intelligit enim per modum substantiarum separatarum ea quae sunt secundum se intelligibilia), neque etiam corpus caeleste magis posset conservari in esse propter sensum, quia non est possibile ipsum corrumpi, unde non indiget sensu ad vitandum corrumpentia.
856. Hence, according to their view, what follows, namely, for why should it not, must not be understood as a question, but as a relative clause inserted to explain why a non-generated body, that is, the heavenly body, does not have sensation even though it has understanding: the explanation being that if it were to have sensation, this would be either such that thereby there would be some benefit for the heavenly body’s soul or some benefit for the heavenly body itself, but neither of these is the case: the heavenly body’s soul would not understand any better on account of sensation than it does without sensation (for it understands through the mode of the separated substances, which are intelligible through themselves), nor could even the heavenly body be preserved in being better on account of sensation, since it is not possible that it corrupt, so it does not need senses to avoid things that might corrupt it.
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Sed ad hunc sensum non adaptatur conclusio consequens, scilicet quod nullum corpus non manens, id est non immobile, habet animam sine sensu, nisi forte dicatur quod haec conclusio non sequitur ex eo quod immediate dictum est, sed ex eo quod primo fuit dictum.
However, this interpretation hardly squares with the conclusion which follows, namely, that no mobile body, that is, one that is not immobile, has a soul without sensation, unless we choose to relate this conclusion back to the previous statement and not to the immediately preceding one.
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857. Quia igitur haec expositio extorta videtur, dicendum est quod per corpus ingenerabile non intelligit corpus caeleste, sed corpora quorumdam animalium aereorum quae Platonici ponebant nominantes ea daemones; quos quidem Apuleius Platonicus sic definit: daemones sunt animalia corpore aerea, mente rationalia, animo passiva, tempore aeterna. De huiusmodi ergo animalium corporibus vult ostendere philosophus quod non est possibile quod habeant intellectum sine sensu sicut Platonici posuerunt, ut interrogative legatur quod dicitur: “quare enim non habebit?” scilicet huiusmodi corpus sensum, quasi <dicat>: “non est rationem assignare huius.” Si enim non habet, aut est propter bonum animae aut propter bonum corporis; sed neutrum horum est, quia sine sensu neque anima eius intelliget melius neque corpus magis conservabitur. Et ex hoc statim directe sequitur conclusio quam inducit, quod nullum corpus mobile habens animam careat sensu. Apparet etiam hanc esse intentionem Aristotelis ex hoc quod immediate subiungit, quod impossibile est aliquod corpus simplex esse corpus animalis.
857. Since, then, this seems to be a forced interpretation, it is better to understand by “non-generated body” not any heavenly body, but the bodies of certain airy animate beings that the Platonists posited, calling them “demons.” Apuleius the Platonist, in fact, defined demons as “animals with airy bodies, rational in mind, passive in spirit, and temporally eternal.” And it would be concerning these beings, then, that the Philosopher seeks to prove that the Platonists were wrong in allowing them intellect without senses. So the “why should it not have” ought to be taken as a question, as meaning “why should such a body not have senses?” as if to say, “there is no reason to assert this.” For if it does lack them, this must be for the good either of its soul or its body; and neither of these is the case, for without senses its soul would understand no better, nor would its body be better preserved. And the conclusion immediately follows, as given above, namely, that no mobile body that has a soul lacks sensation. That this is indeed Aristotle’s meaning is apparent from his immediately adding that no simple body can possibly be the body of an animal.
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858. Deinde cum dicit: at vero, si sensum, ostendit quod sensus sit necessarius simpliciter omni animali. Et circa hoc duo facit:
858. Then, at but if it has sensation (434b8), he proves that sensation is simply necessary for all animals. And about this he does two things:
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primo ostendit propositum;
first, he proves the point;
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secundo inducit quamdam conclusionem ex dictis, ibi: manifestum igitur quoniam necesse etc.
second, at it is, then, evident (435b4; [869]), he draws a conclusion.
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Circa primum duo facit:
The proof subdivides.
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primo proponit quod intendit;
First, he puts forward his own view;
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secundo probat propositum, ibi: hoc autem ex his manifestum etc.
second, he proves it, at this is evident from these considerations (434b11; [859]).
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Proponit autem primo duo, quorum primum est quod, si aliquod corpus habet sensum, necesse est quod vel sit simplex vel mixtum, et impossibile est quod sit simplex, quia, si esset corpus simplex, non haberet tactum. Quem quidem sensum necesse est omne animal habere, non solum animalia processiva, sed etiam animalia immobilia, sicut ostensum est.
His own view contains two points, of which the first is that if some body has sensation, the body must be either simple or mixed. It cannot, however, be simple; for if the body were it would lack the sense of touch, which he has already shown that all animals must have, not only the progressively mobile animals but also the immobile animals.1
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859. Deinde cum dicit: hoc autem ex his, probat propositum.
859. Then, at this is evident (434b11), he proceeds to show what he has proposed.
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Et primo quod sensus tactus sit in omnibus animalibus;
First, that touch is found in all animals;
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secundo quod corpus animalis non possit esse corpus simplex, ibi: quod autem impossibile sit <simplex> esse etc.
second, at it is clearly impossible (435a11; [865]), that no animal body can be a simple body.
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Circa primum duo facit:
With regard to the first, he does two things.
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primo ostendit quod sensus <tactus et gustus> necesse est inesse omnibus animalibus;
First, he shows the necessity of touch for all animals;
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secundo quod <alii sensus> non insunt omnibus, ibi: alii autem propter bonum.
second, at the others, however, exist (434b24; [862]), that the other senses are not found in all.
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Circa primum duo facit:
About the first of these, he does two things:
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primo ostendit quod necesse est tactum inesse omnibus animalibus;
first, he shows that it is necessary for touch to be in all animals;
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secundo ostendit idem de gustu, ibi: propter quod et gustus.
second, he shows this concerning taste, at this is why even taste (434b18; [861]).
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Dicit ergo primo quod hoc quod necesse sit tactum inesse omnibus animalibus manifestum est ex his quae nunc dicentur. Animal enim est corpus animatum, omne autem corpus, scilicet generabile et corruptibile, est tangibile; et dico tangibile quod est sensibile tactu (corpora autem caelestia, quae sunt ingenerabilia et incorruptibilia, non sunt tangibilia: non enim sunt de natura elementorum ut possint habere qualitates elementares quae sunt qualitates tangibiles; sed omnia corpora corruptibilia necesse est habere qualitates tangibiles, cum sint vel elementa simplicia vel ex elementis composita);
First, then, he observes that this, the necessity that touch be in all animals, is evident from these considerations. For an animal is an ensouled body, and every body, that is, every generable and corruptible body, is tangible, and I call “tangible” what is sensible to touch. (But the heavenly bodies, which are ungenerable and incorruptible, are not tangible, for they are not of the nature of the elements, such that they could have the elemental qualities that are the tangible qualities; rather, all corruptible bodies necessarily have the tangible qualities, since they are either simple or compounds of elements.)
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860. et ex hoc concludit quod necesse est corpus animalis habere sensum tactus, si debeat salvari animal, quia, cum corpus animalis sit tangibile, id est habens qualitates tangibiles, et similiter corpora quae ipsum tangunt, immutari potest corpus animalis ab his quae ipsum tangunt materiali immutatione usque ad suam corruptionem. Aliter autem est de aliis sensibus qui sentiunt per alia media et non tangendo, sicut olfactus, visus et auditus; unde illa sensibilia, cum sint remota et non tangant corpus animalis, non possunt alterare ipsum ad corruptionem sicut tangibilia. Et ideo, nisi animal haberet sensum tactus per quem discerneret convenientia a corruptivis, non posset haec fugere et illa accipere; et ita non posset salvari animal. Necessarium est igitur ad salutem animalis quod habeat sensum tactus.
860. Whence he concludes that the animal’s body must have the sense of touch if the animal is to survive. For an animal’s body is tangible, that is, it has the tangible qualities, and so are the other bodies that touch it; therefore the animal’s body might well be affected by these things that touch it with a material change, even to the point of its corruption. It is not the same with those senses that sense through different media, and without touching, that is, smell, sight, and hearing; for their sense-objects, being at a distance and not touching the animal’s body, cannot alter it in the direction of corruption, as the tangible objects can. Hence, if the animal had no sense of touch to discriminate between fitting things and corruptive things, it could not avoid certain things and seize upon others; and thus the animal could not preserve itself. Having the sense of touch, then, is a necessity for an animal’s preservation.
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861. Deinde cum dicit: propter quod et gustus, ostendit idem de gustu, scilicet quod gustus est sicut tactus quidam: est enim gustus alimenti, quo scilicet discernitur alimentum utrum sit conveniens vel non; alimentum autem est quoddam corpus tangibile: nutrit enim ex hoc quod est calidum frigidum, humidum et siccum; ex eisdem enim nutrimur ex quibus sumus. Sed sonus et color et odor nihil faciunt ad alimentum, neque ad augmentum neque ad decrementum; sapor autem confert ad alimentum inquantum est sequela complexionis. Sic igitur patet quod gustus est quidam tactus, quia est sensus alicuius tangibilis et vegetativi, scilicet nutritivi, scilicet alimenti. Et sic patet quod hi sensus necessarii sunt animali, ex quo etiam manifestum est quod animal non potest esse sine tactu.
861. Then, at this is why even taste (434b18), he shows that the same is true of taste, that is, that taste is as a certain touch, for taste is for food, that is, it is that whereby one discerns whether food is fitting or not; but food is a certain tangible body, for it nourishes the body just because it is hot, moist, cold, and dry. For we are nourished by the things from which we are composed. But sounds and colors and scents contribute nothing to nourishment, or to growth or decrease. Flavor, however, does contribute to nourishment insofar as it is a consequence of a thing’s constitution. In this way, then, it is clear that taste is a certain touch, since it is the sense of something tangible and the vegetative or nourishing, that is, of food. Both these senses then are necessary for animals; from which it is plain that no animal can exist without touch.
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862. Deinde cum dicit: alii autem propter bonum, ostendit quod alii sensus non insunt omnibus animalibus, sed quibusdam. Et circa hoc duo facit:
862. Next, at the others, however, exist (434b24), he explains why the other senses are not found in all animals, but only in some. And about this he does two things.
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primo ostendit propositum;
First, he shows it;
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secundo manifestat quoddam quod dixerat, ibi: sicut enim movens.
second, at for just as a thing (434b29; [863]), he explains one of his own expressions.
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Dicit ergo primo quod alii sensus, scilicet visus, auditus et olfactus, conveniunt animali non ad necessitatem, sed propter bene esse, et necessarium est eos inesse non cuilibet generi animalium, sed quibusdam, scilicet quae moventur motu processivo, quia, si debet huiusmodi animal salvari, non solum debet sentire id quod tangit ipsum, sed debet sentire id quod est a longe, quia ad aliquid remotum movetur. Hoc autem, scilicet quod sentiat aliquid a longe, erit, si habeat sensus qui sentiunt per medium, eo quod medium patitur et movetur a sensibili, sensus autem a medio.
First, then, he observes that the other senses of sight, hearing, and smell, belong to an animal not out of necessity, but for well-being, and it is not necessary that they be in every genus of animal, but in some, that is, those that can move from place to place. For if such an animal is to survive, not only ought it sense what is in contact with it, but also what is afar, since it travels to food that is at a distance. And this, that is, sensing things at a distance, will happen if it has a sense that senses through a medium, this medium being acted upon and moved by the sense-object, and the sense by the medium.
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863. Et hoc consequenter cum dicit: sicut enim movens, manifestat per simile in motu locali. Videmus enim quod movens secundum locum facit permutationem usque ad aliquem determinatum locum, quia quod primo depellit facit ut illud depulsum iterum depellat aliud, et sic primum depellens movet tertium per medium; et primum quidem movens depellit sed non depellitur, ultimum autem, ubi terminatur motus, depellitur sed non depellit, medium autem habet utrumque, scilicet quod depellit et depellitur, et contingit multa media esse talia; et sicut hoc est in motu locali, ita contingit in alteratione quod sit ibi primum movens et ultimum motum et medium quod sit movens et motum,
863. And, at for just as a thing (434b29), he proceeds to show this through a likeness based on local motion. For we see that anything moving locally will cause a succession of changes till they reach a determinate place, for what first pushes a thing makes the latter push something else; thereby the first agent moves the third thing through the intermediate—and the first mover impels without being pushed, and the last, where the movement terminates, is pushed but does not itself push anything; while the intermediary holds both—it both pushes and is pushed, and there may be many intermediaries. And as this happens in local motion, so too it happens with alteration that there is a primary mover and a last thing moved and an intermediary that is mover and moved.
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864. sed in hoc tantum differt quod primum alterans manet secundum locum dum alterat, quod non contingit de depellente; et ponit exemplum, sicut si aliquis tingat ceram liquefactam, usque ad illum terminum mota est quousque per alterationem caloris actio tingentis pertingit; sed lapis, quia durus est, non est susceptivus talis impressionis, in aqua autem talis alteratio magis procul protenditur quam in cera, sed adhuc aer, qui est passibilior, in maxime remotum movetur et facit et patitur ut medium existens, dummodo maneat et sit unus, ut non interrumpatur per aliquod obstaculum interpositum.
864. But there is this difference: in the case of alteration, what causes the alteration remains in place as it acts, unlike the agent of a push. And he gives an example. If you touch soft wax, the wax moves to the extent that, through the alteration of heat, the action of the one touching touches it. But a stone, because it is hard, is not receptive to such an impression, whereas water would be so altered, even a long way further than the wax, and still more air, which is even more capable of being acted on, would be moved most of all, by it giving and receiving motion as a medium, provided of course that it remains a unity, that is, not interrupted by any obstacle.
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Et ideo circa repercussionem visus melius est dicere quod aer patiatur a figura et colore quousque permanet unus et continuus, quod contingit quando est levis et non interruptus, quam quod radii egredientes a visu repercutiantur a visibili, ut Platonici posuerunt; et ideo aer sic motus a figura et colore movebit visum, inquantum visibile immutat totum aerem usque ad visum; et esset simile de cera et sigillo si figura sigilli imprimeretur in ceram usque ad ultimum terminum eius, sicut visibile imprimit speciem suam in aerem usque ad visum.
With regard then to reflection in sight, it is better to hold that the air is acted upon by shape and color, provided that the air retains unity and is continuous, which happens when it is smooth and uninterrupted, rather than to say that there are rays coming forth from one’s sight and reflected by the visible object, as the Platonists asserted. And therefore, air so moved by shape and color moves sight, insofar as the visible thing modifies all the air up to the eye. It is as though the shape of a signet ring were to be impressed on a piece of wax right through from one side to the other, just as the visible impresses its species on the air all the way to sight.
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L. 12 (Γ.13, 435a11–435b25)Touch: the fundamental sense
Animalis corpus non esse simpliciter de natura alicuius particularis elementi sensibilis, nec esse sine sensu tactus, quemadmodum esse potest non existentibus aliis sensibus
Touch: the fundamental sense
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Quod autem impossibile sit simplex esse animalis corpus, manifestum est, dico autem puta igneum aut aereum. Sine quidem enim tactu neque unum contingit alium sensum habere; corpus enim tactivum animatum omne, sicut dictum est; alia autem praeter terram sensitiva quidem utique fient, omnia autem eo quod per alterum sentire faciunt sensum et per medium; tactus autem est in tangendo ipsa, propter quod et habet hoc nomen. Et tamen alii sensus tactu sentiunt, sed per altera; hic autem videtur solus per se ipsum.
It is clearly impossible for the body of an animal to be simple—I mean made of fire, for instance, or air. For no other sense can exist without touch, since every animate body, as we have seen, is tactual. The sense organs, indeed, can be constituted of all the elements (except earth), for they effect sensation by sensing through something other than the sensitive body itself, namely, the medium. But touch occurs by touching things; that is also why it has this name. Other senses no doubt also sense by a touch, but through other things; touch alone, it would seem, does this through itself.
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Quare huiusmodi elementorum nullum utique erit corpus animalis, neque itaque terrenum. Omnium enim tangibilium tactus est sicut medietas, et susceptivus sensus non solum quaecumque differentiae terrae sunt, sed et calidi et frigidi et aliorum omnium tangi possibilium. Et propter hoc ossibus et capillis et huiusmodi partibus non sentimus, quia terrae sunt. Et plantae etiam ob hoc nullum habent sensum, quia terrae sunt, sine autem tactu neque unum possibile est alium esse, hic autem sensus non est neque terrae neque alius elementorum nullius.
Hence the body of an animal will not be of such elements as these, nor yet be earthy. For touch is a kind of mean between all tangible objects and is receptive, not only of all the differences of earth, but also of hot and cold and all other things that can be touched. This is why we do not feel with such parts of our bodies as bones and hair, because they are earthy. Plants, too, lack sensitivity for the same reason—they are of earth; and without touch no other sense can exist; and this sense does not consist either of earth or of any other single element.
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Manifestum igitur quoniam necesse hoc solo privata sensu animalia mori; neque enim hunc possibile est habere non animal existens, neque cum sit animal alium necesse est habere praeter hunc.
It is, then, evident that animals would die if they were deprived of this sense alone. For it is neither possible for what is not an animal to possess this, nor, to be an animal, is any other necessary.
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Et propter hoc quidem alia sensibilia excellentiis non corrumpunt animal, ut color et odor et sonus, sed solum sensus, nisi secundum accidens, puta si simul sono depulsio fiat et ictus; et a visis et odore alia moventur quae tactu corrumpunt; et humor autem secundum quod simul accidit tactivum esse, sic corrumpit.
And this again is why the other sense-objects (e.g., color, smell, and sound), by their excessive intensity, do not corrupt the animal, but only the senses—except accidentally, as when, for example, blasts and blows accompany noise; or when other things are set in motion, by objects seen or smelled, which destroy by contact; and flavor too, insofar as it happens also to be tangible, may destroy thus.
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Tangibilium autem excellentia, ut calidorum et frigidorum et durorum, corrumpit animal; omnis quidem enim sensibilis superfluitas corrumpit sensum, quare et quod tangi potest, tactum; hoc autem determinatum est vivere; sine enim tactu monstratum est quod impossibile est animal esse. Unde tangibilium excellentia non solum corrumpit sensum, sed et animal, quia necesse solum habere hunc.
But an excess of tangible qualities, of heat or cold or hardness, destroys the animal itself. For as any excess in the sense-object corrupts the sense, an excess in the object of touch can destroy touch; and by touch life itself is defined. For it has been shown that an animal cannot live without touch. Hence it is clear that the excess of a tangible object corrupts not only the sense but also the animal, inasmuch as only this sense is strictly necessary to animal life.
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Alios autem sensus habet animal, sicut dictum est, non propter esse, sed propter bene,
But, as we have said, the animal has the other senses not for the sake of its being, but for the sake of its well-being.
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ut visum, quia in aere et aqua, ut videat, omnino autem quoniam in dyafano;
For example, it has sight because it lives in air or water (and generally, in what is transparent), so that it might see things.
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gustum autem habet propter delectabile et triste, ut sentiat quod in alimenta et concupiscat et moveatur,
Taste it has on account of the pleasant or painful, so that it may sense both what it desires in food and so be moved towards it.
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auditum autem ut significetur aliquid ipsi, linguam autem habet quatinus significet aliquid alteri.
Hearing it has so that something might be signified to it, and a tongue to signify something to someone else.
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865. Quod autem impossibile sit etc. Postquam philosophus ostendit quod tactus de necessitate inest omnibus animalibus, hic intendit ostendere quod impossibile sit corpus animalis esse simplex, puta quod sit igneum, vel aereum, ut Platonici posuerunt quaedam animalia esse aerea. Hoc autem sic probat, quia nullum alium sensum contingit esse sine tactu: oportet enim omne animal habere tactum, ut ostensum est, et per consequens oportet quod omne corpus animatum, scilicet anima sensibili, sit tale ut per ipsum fieri possit sensus tactus; sed alia elementa praeter terram possunt esse organa vel media aliorum sensuum, scilicet aer et aqua, eo quod aer et aqua faciunt sentire per alterum, id est per medium; sed tactus non fit per medium, sed in tangendo ipsa sensibilia, et ideo sic nominatur. Quamvis et alii sensus sentiant quodammodo in tangendo, non quidem immediate, sed per medium (nam sensibile tangit sensum per medium sicut et per medium immutat ipsum); solus autem sensus tactus sentit tangendo sensibile per seipsum et non per aliquod medium.
865. It is clearly impossible for the body (435a11). After proving that touch must exist in all animals, the Philosopher now sets out to show that it is clearly impossible for the body of an animal to be simple: for instance, to be made of fire, or air—as the Platonists thought when they imagined animals made of air. He argues this from the fact that no other sense can exist without touch, and that, therefore, as he has said already, every animal must have touch.1 Consequently, every animate body, that is, animated with a sensitive soul, must be such that the sense of touch can arise in it. But all the elements (except earth) can be organs of, or the media for, the other senses: air and water, for instance, because they effect sensation through something other than the sensitive body itself, that is, through a medium. But touch does not occur through a medium, but by touching the sensible objects themselves. That is why it is so named. Whereas the other senses sense by a sort of contact, but through a medium, not immediately. (For the sense-object touches the sense through the medium just as it modifies it through the medium.) The sense of touch alone senses by touching the sense-object through itself, and with no medium.
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866. Ex quo manifestum est quod corpus animalis debet esse tale ut per ipsum possit fieri tactus, non autem ut per ipsum possit fieri visus et auditus, quia hi sensus fiunt per medium extrinsecum; et quia corpus animalis oportet tale esse ut per ipsum fiat sensus tactus, impossibile est quod nullum elementorum sit corpus animalis: neque terra, per quam non fiunt alii sensus, neque alia elementa, per quae fiunt alii sensus.
866. From which it is clear that the animal body must be such that touch can arise in it, but not such that sight or hearing can arise in it; for these senses arise through an extrinsic medium. And since the animal body must be such that touch can arise for it, it is impossible that the body of an animal is of such elements as these—not of earth, for the other senses do not arise through it, nor of any of those other elements, through which the other senses come to be.
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867. Cuius ratio est quia id per quod fit tactus oportet esse medium inter contrarias qualitates tangibiles ad hoc quod sit susceptivus earum utpote in potentia existens ad eas, ut supra ostensum est, et hoc est verum non solum respectu qualitatum terrae, sed etiam omnium qualitatum tangibilium; in corporibus autem simplicibus non invenitur medium inter qualitates tangibiles, sed inveniuntur ipsae qualitates secundum extremitates contrarietatis, et inde manifestum est quod per nullum corpus simplex nec per aliquid corporibus simplicibus vicinum potest fieri sensus tactus. Et ideo ossibus et capillis et talibus partibus non sentimus, quia superabundat in eis quod terrae est et non reducuntur ad medium prout requirit tactus.
867. The reason is that that whereby touch occurs must be balanced midway between the various tangible qualities, so that it is receptive of them, insofar as it exists in potency to them, as we have seen already.1 And this is true with respect to all tangible qualities, not to those of earth alone. Now, simple bodies cannot be thus balanced in an intermediate way; rather, they are found to have one or other of opposed qualities to an extreme degree. Hence, it is manifest that the sense of touch can arise through no simple body, nor any body approximating the simple bodies. Therefore this is why we do not feel with such parts of our bodies as bones and hair, because in them what belongs to earth is not reduced to an intermediate, as touch requires.
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868. Propter istam etiam rationem plantae nullum habent sensum, quia habent multum de terrestri, et sine tactu non est possibile esse aliquem alium sensum nec tactum possibile est fieri per aliquod aliud elementum. Sic igitur manifestum est quod nullum corpus simplex potest esse animatum anima sensibili.
868. It is for the same reason that plants too lack sensitivity, because they contain too much of what is earthy, and without touch no other sense can exist, nor is touch able to arise through some other element. It is manifest, then, that no simple body can be ensouled by the sensitive soul.
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869. Deinde cum dicit: manifestum igitur, concludit ex praedictis habitudinem sensuum ad animalia.
869. Then, at it is, then, evident (435b4), as a conclusion from what has been said, he shows how all the senses are related to animals:
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Et primo quantum ad tactum;
first, with regard to the sense of touch;
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secundo quantum ad alios sensus, ibi: alios autem sensus habet animal.
second, at but, as we have said, the animal (435b19; [872]), to the other senses.
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Dicit ergo primo quod, cum necesse sit omne animal habere tactum, ut ostensum est, manifestum est quod solum per privationem huius sensus, scilicet tactus, necesse est animalia mori; hic enim sensus convertitur cum animali, quia nec aliquid potest ipsum habere nisi sit animal nec aliquid potest esse animal nisi habeat hunc sensum.
First, then, he observes that, touch being necessary for all animals, as has been shown, it is evident that animals would die if deprived only of this sense, touch.1 For this sense is indeed convertible with animality: for nothing can have it unless it is an animal, nor can something be an animal unless it has this sense.
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870. Et inde concludit ulterius quod sensibilia aliorum sensuum si sint excellentia corrumpunt quidem singulos sensus, puta nimis fulgida corrumpunt visum et fortes soni corrumpunt auditum, quia tamen corruptis his sensibus potest animal remanere, horum excellentiae non corrumpunt animal nisi per accidens, inquantum scilicet accidit simul animal pati ab aliquibus tangibilibus corrumpentibus, puta si simul cum sono fiat depulsio et ictus, ut accidit in tonitruo ex quo animalia interdum moriuntur;
870. And he further concludes that, while the objects of the other senses, if they are extremely intense, do in fact corrupt each of these powers of sense (as excessive brightness destroys sight, and excessive noise destroys hearing), yet because, even with these senses destroyed, the animal can survive, these excesses do not corrupt the animal, except accidentally—inasmuch as accidentally the animal is also acted upon by certain tangible things that are corruptive, as when blasts and blows accompany noise, as in thunderstorms, for instance, in which animals sometimes die.
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et similiter ab his quae videntur aliqua moriuntur, non inquantum sunt visa sed inquantum inficiunt aera, ut dicitur de quibusdam venenosis; et similiter intelligendum est de odoribus secundum quod cum malis odoribus aliquando coniungitur corruptio aeris; et ita etiam de sapore est quod potest corrumpere animal non inquantum est sapor, sed secundum quod sapori adiungitur aliqua qualitas tangibilis, puta quod talis sapor consequitur calorem excedentem vel frigus.
So also, certain things die due to things that are seen, but not precisely insofar as they are seen but rather insofar as they infect the air, as is said of certain poisons. So too, one should understand smells, insofar as along with bad odors sometimes is conjoined a corruption of the air. Similarly, a taste might harm an animal, not precisely as a taste, but as accompanied by some tangible quality, for example, as such a taste results from an excessive heat or cold.
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871. Sed excellentiae qualitatum tangibilium corrumpunt animal per se et non per accidens, quia omnis excellentia sensibilis corrumpit sensum, unde et quod tangi potest, id est tangibile, si fuerit excellens, corrumpit tactum; secundum hunc autem sensum determinatur vita animalis: tamdiu enim durat vita animal quamdiu durat sensus tactus in eo; ostensum est enim quod impossibile est esse animal sine tactu. Unde manifestum est quod excellentiae tangibilium non solum corrumpunt sensum tactus, sed etiam corrumpunt animal, inquantum solum hunc sensum necesse est inesse animali.
871. But the excessive intensity of tangible qualities does corrupt the animal through itself and not accidentally. For as any excess in the sense-object corrupts the sense, an excess in the object of touch, that is, the tangible, can destroy touch, if it is exceedingly intense; and it is in reference to this sense that an animal’s life is determined. For the life of an animal endures just so long as the sense of touch endures in it. For it has been shown that an animal cannot live without touch. Hence it is clear that the excessive intensity of a tangible object corrupts not only the sense of touch, but it also corrupts the animal, inasmuch as it is necessary for only this sense that it be present in an animal.
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872. Deinde cum dicit: alios autem sensus, ostendit qualiter se habeant alii sensus ad animal. Et dicit quod alios sensus habet animal non propter necessitatem sui esse, quia sine eis potest esse et vivere, sed propter bene esse, sicut visum habet quia vivit in aere et in aqua, ut videat per aerem et aquam ea quae sunt procul, et non solum per aerem et aquam, sed etiam per quodcumque diaphanum, quia etiam per corpora caelestia videmus. Gustum autem habet animal propter delectationem et tristitiam quae est in cibo, ut videlicet sentiat delectationem in alimento et sic concupiscat ipsum et moveatur ad quaerendum ipsum.
872. Then, at but, as we have said, the animal (435b19), he relates the other senses to the animal; the animal has the other senses, he says, not for the sake of a need of its being, since it can exist and live without them, but for the sake of its well-being.1 For example, an animal has sight because it lives in air or water, so that it might see things at a distance through air or water—and not only through air and water, but through any transparent medium, since we even see through the heavenly bodies. Similarly, an animal has taste on account of the pleasure and pain it finds in its food; so that it may sense pleasure in the food and thereby desire it and be moved to seek it out.
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873. Sed notandum est quod supra posuit gustum necessarium animali inquantum est tactus quidam alimenti; hic autem numerat ipsum inter sensus non necessarios inquantum est discretivus saporum, qui faciunt alimentum delectabile vel triste ut accipiatur facilius vel refutetur. — Et quod dicitur de gustu intelligendum est etiam de odoratu, quia per odorem attrahuntur animalia ad alimentum a remotis, licet etiam in hominibus sit alia species et alia utilitas odoratus, ut in libro De sensu et sensato dicitur.
873. Notice that previously he asserted that taste is necessary for an animal insofar as it is a certain touch belonging to food, whereas here he counts it among the senses that are not necessary, insofar as it discriminates between flavors, which latter make food pleasant or painful so that it more readily be accepted or rejected. And what is said of taste should also be understood of the sense of smell, since through odors animals are drawn to food that is distant—though indeed in man, as he explains in On Sense and What is Sensed, smell also has a different species and utility.1
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874. Auditus autem est in animali ad hoc quod ei aliquid significetur: necessarium enim est quod conceptiones unius animalis alteri significentur secundum quod unum animal iuvatur ex altero, ut patet maxime in animalibus gregalibus et in omnibus animalibus in quibus geniti educantur a generantibus. Et ideo etiam oportet quod animal habeat linguam per quam sonando significet suas affectiones alteri.
874. But hearing is in the animal so that something might be signified to it. For it is necessary that the conceptions of one animal be signified to another insofar as one animal is helped by another; this is especially clear in the gregarious animals and in all animals wherein the young are reared by the parents. Hence, too, the tongue is necessary so that one animal might signify, by its sound, its feelings to another.
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Et haec dicta de anima ad praesens sufficiant.
Let this suffice for the present concerning the soul.
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